The Alps in nature and history

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THE ALPS

IN NATURE AND HISTORY

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THE ALPS

IN NATURE AND HISTORY

BY

W. A. B. COOLIDGE, M.A.

FELLOW OF MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD

HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ENGLISH, FRENCH

AND ITALIAN ALPINE CLUBS

WITH MAP, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND DIAGRAMS

NEW YORK

E. p. BUTTON AND COMPANY

31 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET

1908

DQ

PREFACE

THE following pages are not intended to be either
an exhaustive description of the Alps or a series of
impressions of travel amongst them. But they do claim
to offer to the reader an account of the most interesting
features presented by the Alps from several points of
view, and an account that is based on the personal expe-
riences of over forty years' wandering through almost
every district of the great chain.

No attempt has been made to explain how the Alps
came into being, or how in the course of long ages their
outlines and valleys may have changed. They are taken
as they exist in the early twentieth century, and treated
as practically unchangeable. In the early chapters they
are looked at from the physical side, — their extent, their
pastures, their glaciers, their flowers, and their beasts and
birds being successively described. Then we come to
Man in the Alps, first man in himself as a human being
actually inhabiting various districts of the chain, speaking
divers languages, and professing several forms of belief,
and next man as the subject of political vicissitudes of
history, which naturally have affected his home as well as
himself In particular, an attempt has been made to
trace out the political or territorial history of the chief
summits of the Alps. In later chapters Man is con-

vi THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

sidered in his relation to the principal passes across the
Alps, and as the explorer of the innermost recesses of the
High or snowy Alps, this naturally entailing some
notice of the Guides of the Alps, through whose efforts
and loyalty the High Alps were gradually conquered. A
short chapter sketches the impressions made at different
seasons of the year on one who dwells among them, or
who often visits them.

In the final chapter of the work the Alps, hitherto
looked at as a whole, are considered in detail as forming
twenty groups, with divers characteristic features. In
the Appendix, Lists are given of the heights of the prin-
cipal peaks and passes of the Alps, arranged in the twenty
groups enumerated above, of the dates of the successive
conquests of the more important summits, and of some of
the books relating to the chain as a whole that can be
recommended to readers desiring to examine the subject
more closely.

I desire to lay special stress upon the fact that com-
paratively little has been said in these pages as to matters
of Natural Science connected with the Alps. Such sub-
jects are best studied in more special treatises, while the
present work aims only at giving a general account of the
Alps without trying to explain or to investigate the
natural phenomena which are to be found therein.
Thanks to two well-qualified friends, to whom I here
offer my heartiest acknowledgments for their help, the
Flowers of the Alps, as well as their Beasts and Birds,
are treated of in a manner which should prove attractive
to many readers. But here again things are described as
they are at present, and not the evolution of things, how-
ever interesting such a subject may be.

I have also to thank Mr. D. C. Lathbury most sincerely

PREFACE vii

for the courtesy which has allowed me to make use of
various articles contributed by me in 1901-1903 to the
Pilot. A portion of their contents is included in
Chapter XL, as well as in groups 1-8 and ii of the special
description of the Alps given in the final chapter of the
work.

The Map that accompanies this work has been care-
fully prepared by Mr. Bartholomew, and is designed to
afford a bird's-eye view of the Alpine chain, with its prin-
cipal peaks, passes, and glaciers, the main idea being to
mark the way in which the mountains rise gradually out
of the plains till they culminate in lofty snow-clad
summits.

The Illustrations are, for the most part, reproductions
after admirable photographs of Signor Vittorio Sella, to
whom I beg to express my hearty thanks for permitting
me to adorn my book with some of his marvellous views
of the High Alps. A few other Illustrations are due to
the kindness of several friends, Mr. Alfred Holmes,
Monsieur Victor de Cessole, and Signor Guido Rey, who
have placed them at my disposition, and whom I beg to
assure of my great appreciation of their readiness to
oblige, for it is not easy to procure certain of these views.

In general I am immensely indebted to my friend,
Dr. R. L. Poole (Member of the British Academy, and
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford) for much help and
advice, particularly as regards the historical Chapters
(VII. and VIII.). He suggested to me the idea of framing
diagrams by which to make clear the relations of the
Great Historical Passes of the Alps. Thanks to the
skill of Mr. Darbishire, this excellent suggestion has been
carried out in a manner that will be most acceptable to
my readers.

viii THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

I have also to acknowledge, most gratefully, help of
various kinds, whether in the shape of reading proofs or
of giving valuable hints, rendered by four other friends :
Sir Martin Conway, Mr. Douglas W. Freshfield, Mr. W. M.
Baker, and Herr H. Diibi.

W. A. B. C.

Grindelwald, April 1908.

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CONTENTS

CHAP.

I. WHAT ARE 'THE ALPS'?

n. THE PASTURES OF THE ALPS,

HI. THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS, .

IV. ALPINE FLOWERS. By George Yeld, .

V. SOME BEASTS AND BIRDS OF THE ALPS.
Howard V. Knox, ....

VI. THE ALPINE FOLK,

1. Political Allegiance,

2. Mother Tongues,

3. Religions, ....

VII. THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS,
General History up to 1033,

1. The Western Alps,

(i) The House of Savoy,

(2) The Dauphins of the Vicnnois,

(3) Provence, ....
Political Peaks, ....

2. The Central Alps,

A. The Struggle with the Milanese,

(a) Val d'Ossola, .
{d) Bellinzona, Locarno, and Lugano,
[c) The Valtelline,
Political Peaks,

B. The Struggle towards the North,

(a) The Vallais and Berne,

{d) Uri, ....

(c) The Grisons,

3. The Eastern Alps,
(i) Their Occupation by the Habsburgers,

A. The 'Swiss Phase' of the Family, .

By

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THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

B. The 'Austrian Phase,'.

{a) Austria proper, Carniola, and Stj'ria, .
(d) Carinthia, ....

(c) The Tyrol, ....

C. The 'Venetian Phase,'
The Alpine Lands of the Habsburgers during the

Napoleonic Era, ....

(ii) The Bavarian Highlands,
Political Peaks, ......

VIII. THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES OF THE ALPS,

Passes Known to the Romans, ....

1. Great Passes in the Western Alps,

2. Great Passes in the Central Alps,

3. Great Passes in the Eastern Alps,

IX. THE EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS UP TO

THE END OF 1865,

1. Ascents made before 1760,

2. Ascents made between 1760 and c. 1800,

3. Ascents made between r. 1800 and c. 1840,

4. Ascents made between c. 1840 and 1865,

X. MODERN MOUNTAINEERING IN THE HIGH ALPS,
XI. ALPINE GUIDES, ......

XII. A YEAR'S ROUND IN THE ALPS,

XIII. THE VARIOUS DIVISIONS AND GROUPS OF THE
ALPS,

A. The Main Divisions,

B. The Principal Groups,

I. Western Alps, .

1. Maritime Alps,

2. Cottian Alps,

3. Dauphine Alps,

4. Graian Alps, .

5. Chain of Mont Blanc (Western Pennine Alps),

6. Central Pennine Alps,

7. Eastern Pennine Alps,

II. Central Alps, .

8. Bernese Alps,

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CONTENTS

XI

9. Lepontine Alps,

10. The Range of the Todi,

11. The Alps of North-East Switzerland,

12. Bernina Alps,

13. Albula Group,

14. Silvretta and Rhatikon Group,

III. Eastern Alps,

15. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg, and Salzburg

16. Ortler, Oetzthal, and Stubai Ranges,

17. Lombard Alps, ....

18. Central Tyrolese Alps, ...

19. The Dolomites of the South Tyrol, .

20. South-Eastern Alps, .

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APPENDICES

I. List of the Principal Peaks and Passes in the Alps,

II. Select List of the Principal Peaks in the Alps

arranged according to the Date at which they

were first Conquered, .....

III. List of the Principal Works relating to the Alps, .

)73

397

408

INDEX,

411

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

THE SASS MAOR (DOLOMITES) FROM THE PALA DI

SAN MARTINO, ..... Frontispiece

(This peak rises S. of the Pala di San Martino, and therefore
E. of the valley of Primiero, over which it towers grandly. The
summit seen to the left is the higher, 9239 ft., while the lower,
the Cima della Madonna, 9026 ft., rises to the right hand of the
spectator. Together they form one of the most daring and im-
posing of the Dolomites. The ascent of both points is very
difficult, the easiest way being up the N. face, that seen in our
view, to the gap between the two summits. The point in the fore-
ground is the Cima di Ball, 9131 ft., which takes its name from
the famous English mountain explorer).

THE SCHRECKHORN RANGE (BERNESE OBERLAND)

FROM THE FINSTERAARHORN, . Opposite page \

(It is nearly impossible to get a good view of the S.W. side of
this range, except from the top of the Finsteraarhorn, which rises
to the S. The long ridge of the Strahlegghorner, 11,444 ft. — the
pass of the Strahlegg is just not seen — leads up to the foot of our
range, and divides the Strahlegg Glacier, seen on the right of the
spectator, from the upper basin, not seen, of the Lower Grindel-
wald Glacier. In the main range itself we have, going from left to
right, abit oftheGwachten, 10,397 ft. ; the Gwachtenjoch, 10,365
ft.; the Klein Schreckhorn, 11,474 ft. ; the Nassijoch, 11,221 ft.
the Nassihorn ridge, 12,300 ft. ; the Gross Schreckhorn, 13,386 ft.
the Schrecksattel, 13,052 ft. ; the Gross Lauteraarhorn, 13,265 ft.
the Klein Lauteraarhorn, 12,277 ft., and the other points on the
ridge dividing the Strahlegg Glacier from the Lauteraar Glacier.
Behind our range is seen that separating the Lauteraar Glacier
from the Gauli Glacier, and still more in the background the
ridge that limits on N. the Gauli Glacier itself).

xiii

xiv THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

THE MARJELENSEE (GROSS ALETSCH GLACIER),

Opposite page 15

(This, the most famous of all glacier lakes, lies at a height of
7766 ft., and at the N. foot of the well-known view-point of the
Eggishorn, in the Vallais. It occupies part of the nearly level
depression separating the Fiescher Glacier from the Gross Aletsch
Glacier, which holds in the lake on the W. Icebergs generally
float upon its surface. Despite a drainage channel to protect the
pastures to the E. of the lake its waters occasionally escape
towards the W. by .sub-glacial channels and then flood the en-
virons of Brieg. To the left of the spectator a bit of the Mittel
Aletsch Glacier is seen, then comes the black peak of the Olmen-
horn, 10,886 ft., beyond which is the long ridge of the Dreieck-
horn, 12,540 ft.).

A CREVASSE ON THE DZASSET GLACIER (EASTERN

GRAIANS), ..... Opposite page 23

(A typical crevasse on a little known Italian glacier).

THE MONT HERBETET (EASTERN GRAIANS) FROM

THE DZASSET GLACIER, . . . Opposite page ^t,

(This fine rocky peak, 12,396 ft., though far from being the
loftiest summit in its district, is by many considered to be the
most striking peak of the region. It is here seen from the S.E.,
the very jagged ridge, on the left of the spectator, being the
famous S. arete, which affords a delightful series of exciting
difficulties to rock climbers).

THE WETTERHORN, EIGER, MONCH, JUNGFRAU, ETC.
(BERNESE OBERLAND) FROM THE BLtlMLISALP-
HORN, ..... Opposite page 46

(In the foreground we see the delicate snow crest that forms
the summit of the Blumlisalphorn, 12,044 ft. Behind it are the
various peaks named, going from left to right. Beyond the great
opening of the Lauithor, 12,140 ft., to the right of the Jungfrau,
the Fiescherhorner, 13,285 ft., and the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft.,
are seen in the background. To the right of the Lauithor, in the
middle distance, stretches the long snowy ridge, crowned by the
Gletscherhorn, 13,065 ft., the Ebnefluh, 13,006 ft., and the
Mittaghorn, 12,779 ft., which closes the head of the Lauter-
brunnen valley, and forms such a conspicuous feature in the well-
known view from the frequented village of Miirren).

I

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv

MONTE ROSA FROM THE FALLERHORN, . Opposite page dt,

(The Fallerhorn, 10,270 ft., is a fine view-point in the ridge
separating the Val Sesia, S.E., from the Val Anzasca, E., and
running S.E. from the main mass of Monte Rosa. The upper
portion of this ridge is shown, on our view, from the Monte delle
Loccie, 11,477 ft- (just seen on the extreme right of the spectator),
past the depression of the Col delle Loccie, 11,001 ft., over the
rocky hump of the Punta dei Tre Amici, 11,618 ft., to the
Signaljoch, 12,441 ft., whence it rises sharply to the summit,
the Signalkuppe or Punta Gnifetti, 14,965 ft., which occupies
the centre of the picture. The greater part of our view (to the
left of the spectator) shows the glaciers and peaks at the head of
the Val Sesia. Going from left to right we see the rocky Punta
Giordani, 13,304 ft., and the snowy Vincent Pyramide, 13,829 ft.,
beyond which is the depression of the Colle Vincent, 13,652 ft.
Thence we mount over the minor summits of the Schwarzhorn,
13,882 ft. — which hides the Balmenhorn, 13,500 ft. — and of the
Ludwigshohe, 14,259 ft., to the snowy dome of the Parrotspitze,
14,643 ft. Just beyond is the great couloir leading up to the
Sesiajoch, 14,515 ft., long the loftiest pass ever crossed in the
Alps, and then rises the Signalkuppe, which hides the Colle
Gnifetti, 14,699 ft., and the Zumsteinspitze, 15,004 ft. The
next snowy gap is the Zumsteinsattel, 14,601 ft., beyond which
the rocky point of the Dufourspitze or highest summit of Monte
Rosa, 15,217 ft., peers over the watershed and frontier — for it
rises on a spur to the W. of both. The wide opening of the
Silbersattel, 14,732 ft. — at present the loftiest pass yet crossed
in the Alps— leads the eye on to the Nord End, 15,132 ft. The
smaller portion of our view, from the Zumsteinsattel to the Nord
End, shows the E. face of Monte Rosa, that forms such a magnifi-
cent spectacle from Macugnaga at the head of the Val Anzasca).

THE POINTE DES ECRINS AND THE PIC COOLIDGE
(DAUPHINE ALPS) FROM THE CHARDON GLACIER,

Opposite page 75
From a Photograph by Alfred Holmes.
(The former of these peaks, 13,462 ft., is the loftiest point of
the Dauphine Alps, while the latter, 12,323 ft., rises to its S.,
and is one of the finest view-points in the region. The S.W.
slope of both is here shown. To the left hand of the spectator is
the Ecrins, followed by the narrow notch of the Col des Aval-
anches, 11,520 ft., whence it is often ascended. Next to the right
comes the rock tower of the Fifre, 12,074 ft., which, like the Pic

xvi THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Coolidge, just beyond, was first climbed by Mr. Coolidge, the
lower point in 1881, the higher in 1877. The Pic Coolidge
formerly bore several names, but received its present appellation
in 1879 from some French mountaineers who desired to com-
memorate the long-continued explorations of the author of these
pages in the district).

LES BANS (DAUPHIN^ ALPS) FROM THE PILATTE

GLACIER, ..... Opposite page %^

From a Photograph by Alfred Holmes.

(This summit, 11, 979 ft., is the loftiest that rises in the ranges
which form the S. limit of the main or Pelvoux group of the
Dauphine Alps. It is finely situated at the meeting-point of three .
Alpine glens, those of Pilatte, of Entraigues, and of the Val-
gaudemar. It was first climbed in 1878 by Mr. Coolidge from
the snowy gap, the Col des Bans, 11,090 ft., that is seen to the
left of the peak. Some way farther to the left, but invisible on
this view, is the more famous Col de la Pilatte, 11,057 ft., which
was first crossed in 1864 by Messrs A. W. Moore, H. Walker,
and E. Whymper. The great Pilatte Glacier which fills the fore-
ground is one of the finest in the Dauphine Alps, and is the main
source of the Veneon, the stream that flows down from the loftiest
summits of the region).

MONT BLANC FROM THE RIDGE OF THE MONT

HERBETET, ..... Opposite page <)i

(The real height and majesty of Mont Blanc, 15,782 ft., are
always best realised when it is seen from the South, as then it
towers up in solitary grandeur, flanked by its satellites. It here
occupies the centre, the Mont Maudit, 14,669 ft., and the Mont
Blanc du Tacul, 13,941 ft., to the right of the spectator, leading
the eye on to the depression of the Col du Geant. The long and
narrow glacier to the left below Mont Blanc is that of Brouillard,
while more to the right is that of the Brenva, one of the most
magnificent glaciers in the Alps).

MONT BLANC FROM THE N.W. BUTTRESS OF THE

AIGUILLE DU G^ANT, . . . Opposite page 203

(This view is a pendant to our other view of the Monarch of
Mountains, which is here seen from the S.E. across the great
opening of the Col du Geant. The summit below Mont Blanc
is the Tour Ronde, 12,441 ft. To the left of the spectator and

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

of Mont Blanc the rocky Aiguille Noire de Peteret, 12,402 ft.,
half hidden in mist, leads the eye on over the sharp rock needles
named the Dames Anglaises, 11,825 ft- — the last great peak in
the Alps to be conquered, for it held out till 1907 — to the splendid
Aiguille Blanche de Peteret, 13,482 ft.)-

THE MATTERHORN FROM THE COL DES GRANDES

MURAILLES, ..... Opposite page 2y^

(Our view shows one of the most impressive aspects of this
famous peak, 14,782 ft., being taken from the W.S.W. To the
left of the spectator is the so-called 'Zmutt arete,' by which a
very difficult route has been forced to the summit, while to the
right of this grim ridge are seen the gaunt precipices of the W.
face of the peak. More to the right is the S.W. face, up which
leads the ordinary route from the Italian side, over the con-
spicuous shoulder of the Pic Tyndall, to the summit. Far more
to the right are the upper snows of the Gorner Glacier, to the
right of which rise the highest summits of Monte Rosa itself).

THE JUNGFRAU (BERNESE OBERLAND) FROM THE

EBNEFLUHJOCH, .... Opposite page 261

(This is an unusual view of the Jungfrau, 13,669 ft., one of the
best-known summits of the Alps. It is taken from the Ebnefluh-
joch, 12,304 ft., to its S.W. The cliffs to the left of the spectator
fall down into the wild Roththal glen, ill-famed as the haunt of
many spirits. Far to the left a bit of the Silberhorn, 12,156 ft.,
is seen, and then the gap of the Silberllicke. Above, on the
shoulder of the Jungfrau, is the snow-field, named ' Hochfirn,'
which is traversed on the way up the peak from the Little Scheid-
egg by way of the Silberllicke, and, still higher, is the top of the
Jungfrau itself. The S.E. arete of the peak, up which goes the
ordinary route from the Roththalsattel, 12,655 ft., leads the eye
down to that depression — the upper portion of the great snow
couloir on the S.W. side of which is seen — whence the ridge
mounts again to the Roththalhorn, 12,947 ft.)

THE SOUTHERN AIGUILLE D'ARVES (t)AUPHINE ALPS)

FROM THE COL LOMBARD, . , Opposite page 269

From a Photograph by Victor de Cessole.

(This summit is the most southerly of the three Aiguilles d'Arves,
and is by many believed to be the highest of the three sisters,
11,529 ft. They rise, just in Savoy, between the valleys of St.

b

xviii THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Jean d'Arves, to the N.W., and that of Valloire to the E. Our
view shows the S. face of the peak, the two small snow-filled
gullies, just to the right hand of the final rocky mass, giving access
to the S.E. arete, which is crossed, in order to complete the
ascent, first made in 1878 by Mr. Coolidge, by the E. face).

MONTE VISO (COTTIAN ALPS) FROM THE NORTH-EAST,

Opposite page 292
From a Photograph by GuiDO Rey.

(Monte Viso, 12,609 ft-j is not only the loftiest summit of the
Cottian range, but is also the one great peak in the Alps which is
mentioned by name by the writers of classical antiquity — it is so
conspicuous from the plain of Piedmont that it has always been
the ' visible mount.' Our view shows its N.E. face, which was
first climbed by Mr. Coolidge in 1881, while below the summit is
seen the glacier that is the real source of the Po. To the right of
the spectator is the triple-pointed Visolotto, 11,101 ft., also
conquered by Mr. Coolidge in 1881).

THE MEIJE (DAUPHINE ALPS) FROM THE SOUTH,

Opposite page 297

(The Meije, the second in height of the Dauphine Alps, is
here seen towering above the Etan9ons Glacier that extends at its
S. base. To the left of the spectator is the deep depression of
the Breche de la Meije (10,827 ft.). More to the right is the
small hanging glacier, named the Glacier Carre, below which the
' Promontoire ' spur stretches far into the Etan9ons Glacier. To
the right of the Glacier Carre is the Grand Pic (13,081 ft.) of
the Meije, connected by a toothed ridge with the Pic Central or
DoigtdeDieu (13,025 ft.). Beyond the ridge sinks to the Breche
Joseph Turc (12,697 ft-)? and then rises to the (invisible) Pic
Oriental (12,832 ft.) of the Meije).

THE GRAND COMBIN (CENTRAL PENNINES) FROM THE

GRAND TAV6, .... Opposite page i\i

(The Grand Combin rises to the N.E. of the Great St. Bernard
Pass, and is the only peak over 14,000 ft. — with the exception of
the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft. in the Bernese Oberland — that
is to be found outside the Chain of Mont Blanc and the Monte
Rosa district. It is here seen, from its least steep side, rising
above the glorious Corbassiere Glacier. Of the two highest
snowy horns, that to the left of the spectator is the Pointe de

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix

Graffeneire, 14,108 ft., and that to the right, the Aiguille du
Croissant, 14,164 ft., the culminating summit of the mountain.
These two horns are only about 15 minutes' walk distant from
each other. More to the right of the spectator is the Combin de
Valsorey, 13,600 ft., whence the ridge falls away to the opening
of the Col des Maisons Blanches, 11,241 ft., which leads from
the very head of the Corbassiere Glacier to Bourg St. Pierre, on
the Great St. Bernard road).

THE MONTE DELLA DISGRAZIA (BERNINA ALPS) FROM

THE FELLARIA GLACIER, . . Opposite page IZS

(This fine peak, 12,067 ft., rises as a great spur to the S.W. of
the main Bernina group, and is wholly in Italy. Its N.E. face,
with the Ventina Glacier, is here shown, the view being taken
from the great Fellaria Glacier, which lies on the S. slope of the
central Bernina Alps).

THE ORTLER FROM THE MONTE ZEBRU, Opposite page 349

(The Ortler, 12,802 ft., is the culminating summit of the Tyrol,
as well as of the Eastern Alps. We here admire its S. side, the
eye passing over the depression of the Hochjoch, 11,602 ft. — the
highest pass in the Eastern Alps — and then following the very
difficult S. arete— first forced in 1875— which leads to the highest
snow plateau and so to the corniched summit of the peak. This
arete, in its entirety, like the Ortler itself, is wholly in the Tyrol.
The slopes to the left of this arete fall towards the Italian Zebru
glen. Those to the right descend towards the Tyrolese valley of
Sulden, the ridge far to the right being named the * Hinter Grat,'
and having been climbed as early as 1805 on occasion of the
second ascent of the peak).

THE PALA DI SAN MARTINO (DOLOMITES) FROM THE

ROSETTA, ..... opposite page T,66

(The Pala di San Martino, 9831 ft., has been compared to a
mountain castle. It rises to the S. E. of San Martino di Castrozza,
and to the N.E. of the village of Primiero. Despite its relatively
small height it offers one of the more difficult climbs in the Dolo-
mites, which is effected up the N.W. wall here shown — this is the
easiest of the three routes known up the peak, and that by which
it was first conquered in 1878. The point in the foreground,
between the Rosetta and the peak, is the Cima di Roda,
9121 ft.).

XX THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE CHIEF HISTORICAL
PASSES OF THE ALPS

I. From the Mediterranean to the
Pass, .....

Mont

II. The Mont Genevre and the Mont Cenis Passes

III. The Passes over the Pennine Alps,

IV. The St. Gotthard Region,
V. The Passes from Coire to Milan,

VI. The Brenner and the Passes to its West,
VII. The Brenner and the Passes to its East,

G

enevre

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General Map of the Alps

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THE ALPS

IN NATURE AND HISTORY
CHAPTER I

WHAT ARE * THE ALPS ' ?

IT is tolerably certain that most readers of these pages
will not feel the slightest hesitation in answering the
question which forms the title of this chapter. 'The Alps,'
so they will state with the utmost confidence, is, of course, the
name given to the principal mountain range in Europe. Can
there be any doubt on this point ? they will ask, with a spice
of incredulity. Have we all along been deceived or taken in by
this word ? or has the writer set us a conundrum ? The latter
alternative may be at once dismissed. But the former contains
a germ of truth, and perhaps also a gHmmering idea on the
part of the questionists that their belief is not so solidly based
as they fondly imagined. No doubt the sense of the term
indicated above is that which is most widely accepted by those
who do not dwell amid the mountains, and are therefore far
more numerous than the Alpine folk. But if we look a little
further into the matter, we shall discover that the inhabitants
of the Alps attribute to the name we are considering a mean-
ing which is quite distinct from that already noted. When they
speak of ' the Alps ' they have in mind the highland summer
pastures, that extend along the mountain slopes below the
snow-line, yet at a considerable height above the village itself.
To the Alpine folk, as we shall have occasion to point out in
the next chapter, ' the Alps ' in this sense are of overwhelming

A

2 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

practical importance, for the highland summer pastures are the
centre round which revolves the whole social economy of the
mountain dwellers. Were it not for these high pastures how
could the cattle be maintained in summer, as the meadows close
to the village supply only winter fodder? and if there were
no cattle, the entire pastoral life of the Alpine folk would be
deprived of its basis, and cease to be possible.

Both senses of the term can be traced back through many
centuries. It is not clear, indeed, which is the older or the
original meaning of the word. It may be that the mountain
dwellers gave the name to the highland summer pastures, and
that the early travellers who visited the Alpine valleys learnt
from them this new term and inaccurately applied it to the
great peaks that tower above these pastures. Or, perhaps,
the mountain dwellers themselves, when questioned on the
matter, gave their visitors to understand that the great peaks,
in the eyes of those over whose homesteads they frowned, were
simply continuations or extensions of the summer pastures,
perhaps indeed once the site of such pastures in former days,
before the frightful increase in the extent of the barren region
of ice and snow. The confusion between these two meanings
of ' the Alps ' finds an exact parallel in that which prevails in
the case of the more general words, ' Berg,' ' alpe,' ' montagne,'
or 'monte.' To the Alpine folk any of these terms conveys
the idea of a highland summer pasture, though the dweller in
the plains thinks naturally of the lofty snoAvy summits.

It would be an interesting line of inquiry to trace out the
manner in which the mountain dwellers gradually adopted the
sense of the term that had approved itself to the inhabitants of
the plains, and which perhaps had first been suggested to the
Alpine folk when they received a visit from their more civilised
neighbours. But we cannot enter on such fascinating bypaths,
and must here content ourselves with remarking that to the
Alpine folk the high summits are naturally objects of abhorrence,
as ever threatening the scanty fields and meadows in the valley.
In the course of time, however, the primitive mountain inhabitants
have learnt that the dreaded snowy peaks can become to them

WHAT ARE 'THE ALPS'? 3

a veritable gold-mine, and are really far more valuable than
their much-cherished pastures, for it is the peaks and not the
pastures that attract visitors from below to the Alpine glens, and
these visitors leave much gold behind them.

In this work the term ' the Alps ' will be exclusively employed
(save in Chapter 11.) to mean the great mountain-chain that
forms the most conspicuous physical feature of the continent of
Europe. Viewed as a whole, it forms a great wall or rampart
that protects Italy on the N. from the rude outside world,
and extends, in the form of a crescent, from the shores of the
Mediterranean, on the W., to those of the Hadriatic, on the
E. On either slope the higher ridges gradually sink down till
they subside into the plains of Italy, on the S., or of France,
Switzerland, and Austria, on the N. But this huge wall or
rampart, though forming so lofty and so rugged a barrier, has
never been an impassable barrier, whether to human beings, to
plants, to animals, or to winds, though the cold masses of air
driven from the N. against the wall of the Alps are warmed by
the compression, so that while northerly winds do cross the
Alps, the southern regions are protected by them from intense
and sudden variations of temperature. It can, without difficulty,
be turned at either extremity, whether by sea or by comparatively
easy routes, such as, on the W., the ancient track along the coast,
now known as the Corniche Road, from Genoa to Marseilles,
or on the E. by the route through the Birnbaumer Wald (Mons
Ocra) from Laibach to Gorz. As men became bolder, this
great barrier was overcome by what are called 'Passes,' that
is, not gorges, as this word once meant, but the best marked
and lowest depressions that are to be found in the main chain
itself. Various causes contributed to make men prefer one
' Pass ' to another, so that a few of these depressions became
' The Great Historical Passes of the Alps,' and will be considered
in Chapter viii. below. Originally these passes could only be
traversed on foot and at the cost of great hardships, though
soon Hospices for the reception of wanderers were set up on
or near their summits. Later on, these footpaths were improved,
in certain cases, into horse tracks or mule paths, which, from

4 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the eighteenth century onwards were often replaced by magnifi-
cently engineered carriage roads. Nowadays a third stage has
been reached in the matter of rendering the passage of the Alps
less and less toilsome and perilous. Instead of turning them
or crossing them, tunnels are pierced right through their bowels,
and so the modern traveller may, in a comfortable sleeping-car,
avoid even the sight of the belles horreurs which caused his
predecessors to shudder. Such tunnels, in the main chain,
are those through which run the lines beneath the Col de Tenda,
the Mont Cenis (strictly 17 miles to the W. of this pass), the
Simplon, the St. Gotthard, and the Hohe Tauern, while a few '
lines are boldly carried across the passes themselves (so the
Brenner and the Pontebba), thus finally superseding footpaths,
mule tracks, or carriage roads. The most remarkable instance
of this modern development of means of communication
throtigh the Alps is afforded by the magnificent scheme (just
completed) by which a grand Alpine line has been carried from
Vienna to Trieste by means of four tunnels beneath the Pyhrn
and Hohe Tauern Passes, and through the Karawankas and
Julie ranges.

Putting aside the obscure, though interesting, investigation
of the migrations of plants and animals across the Alps, let us
confine our attention to the men and women, who, not being
dwellers in the chain, desired to overcome it for one or other
of numerous reasons. From Italy Latin civilisation streamed
over the mighty chain, in Roman, in Mediaeval, in Renaissance
times, and so brought the outer ' barbarians ' into the pale first
of civilisation, and then of Christianity, in both cases more or
less largely by force of arms, the primary object being the
political subjection of these outlying lands. The 'barbarians'
once tamed, civilised, and converted, streamed in their turn
over the Alps to the rich and fascinating land of Italy.
Sometimes armies crossed in order to seize on the treasures
of the South and occupy its fertile plains. Sometimes
merchants brought over the products of the north, or, travel-
ling in the reverse direction, carried from Italy the wares
of the East to the hungry and comparatively barren northern

WHAT ARE 'THE ALPS'? 5

regions. Or again, students flocked over the huge range to
saturate their minds with Latin Hterature and learning:. But
perhaps, till the modern fashion of pleasure-travelling set in,
the largest contingent of Alpine travellers coming from the
north was formed by the almost countless throngs of pilgrims,
of whatever class or status, on their way to the threshold of the
Apostles, and the centre of Latin Christianity. Nor should
we forget the official journeys of the mediaeval Holy Roman
Emperors-elect, on their way to be crowned at Rome. What-
ever the object or character of these various wanderers may
have been, the result of their journeys was similar — the Alps
were regarded no longer as an impassable barrier, but as a
barrier which could and might be passed, though at the price
of many dangers and privations. The way was thus opened for
'tourists' and 'climbers.'

We have hitherto looked at the Alps as a whole, and as
constituting a single great range. But if we go deeper into
the matter we shall find that this great range is not made up
of a single ridge, as is often shown on the quaint old maps.
There is indeed a backbone, but there are also, as in the case
of a fish, numerous lateral ribs or ridges that stick out at right
angles from it and enclose between them hollows in the shape
of valleys and glens. These valleys run up to the central
backbone, and afford access to the passes, which lead across
it. Thus the system of the Alps is far more complicated than
might be imagined at first sight, and this characteristic is grasped
at once by any one who pays them a visit.

The backbone, or main watershed, is easily traced throughout
nearly its entire length, save that between the Bernina Pass and
the Reschen Scheideck Passes it is rather ill-defined, while far
away to the E., when it reaches the Dreiherrenspitze, the S.W.
extremity of the Gross Venediger group, we must make our
choice between following the lofty ridge of the Tauern stretching
eastwards, or else the main watershed that runs southwards
towards the Hadriatic.

Besides this great backbone, with its projecting ribs and
deep valleys, we find that there are other masses, scarcely

6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

inferior in height, which rise on one or other side of the main
chain, and are connected with it by a kind of isthmuses. Such
are the Alps of Dauphine and of the Bernese Oberland, of the
Range of the Todi and the chain bounding the Engadine on
the N., of the lofty Ortler group and of the lower Limestone Alps
of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg, and Salzburg, as well as of the en-
chanted Dolomites of the South Tyrol. These great side masses
are, as regards their internal structure, similar to the main chain,
each possessing a main watershed, with side ridges that enclose
valleys between them.

Hence we must always bear in mind that while the Alps form
a single continuous chain, there rise, N. and S. of the principal
range, great mountain masses, similar in all respects, but not
forming independent islands, for they are joined by side ridges
to the chief range, and so form an integral portion of it. Before
the present writer ever saw the Alps he imagined them to himself
as forming one uninterrupted chain. But after he came to
explore them in detail he could afford to smile at the old lady
who, not having seen them, believed that there were but three
great peaks in the Alps, each forming an island — Mont Blanc,
the Matterhorn, and Monte Rosa — and so felt quite reassured
as to the safety of her beloved son, who had climbed these three
summits, and, clearly therefore, could incur no further great
dangers.

In these pages we look always at the Alps as they now are,
that is, we consider their topography as it now stands, without
inquiring either by what processes the actual forms they present
were carved out, or the geological constitution of the rocks of
which they are composed. Such subjects, most interesting in
themselves, belong to the domain of Natural Science, with which
we do not meddle in this work.

But we cannot grasp what the Alps really are unless we try
to realise that while the skeleton of the Alps is undoubtedly
formed of rocks, hard or soft, these rocks, particularly in the
case of the loftiest summits, are very largely covered by fields of
eternal snow and ice or glaciers (of which more in Chapter in.).
The heat of the sun, especially in summer, melts a certain

WHAT ARE 'THE ALPS'? 7

proportion of these snows, which thus give rise to great rivers
or minor streams. These torrents have carved out the valleys
through which they flow downwards. All the great Alpine
rivers (save apparently the Drave and the Piave, and in a sense
the Inn, the Adda and the Adige) have their origin in these
eternal snows — the Durance, the Isere, the Rhone, the Aar,
the Reuss, the Rhine, and the Linth, are all on the non-Italian
slope of the Alps ; while on the Italian slope we have the Po,
the Tosa, the Ticino, and the Oglio. Sometimes these great
rivers (like minor streams) form small lakes on their way, where
their bed widens out into a hollow. Several, after their rapid
descent from the snow region, form much larger lakes at the
points where they reach the level country ; such is the origin
of the Lakes of Geneva, of Thun, of Brienz, of Lucerne, of
Constance, as well as the Lago Maggiore, and the sheets
of water known as the Lakes of Lugano, of Como, of Iseo,
and of Garda.

Of these huge masses of water those rising on the Italian
slope of the Alps lose themselves for the most part in the
Mediterranean, either through the Gulf of Genoa, or through
the Hadriatic Sea. But the rivers at the eastern extremity of
the Alps are diverted by a series of low hills towards the
Danube (a non-Alpine river), which also receives the Inn,
though this rises on the non-Italian slope of the Alps. With
the exception of the Rhone (flowing to the Mediterranean) and
of the Danube (which falls into the Black Sea) the other rivers
rising on the non-Italian slope of the Alps find their way
ultimately to the North Sea. Those who like oddities may
care to know that there are at least two summits in the Alps
which send their waters to each of these three seas. So the
waters flowing from the Wyttenwasserstock (the lower peak,
9922 ft.) in the Lepontine Alps, help to swell the Mediterranean,
the HadriatiC;, and the North Sea, while Pizzo Lunghino
(91 2 1 ft.), N.W. of the Maloja Pass, sends streams to the
Hadriatic, the North Sea, and the Black Sea.

Having thus obtained a general idea of what ' the Alps '
really are in the most usually accepted sense of that term, let

8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

us now briefly fix the limits by which they are marked off
from the Apennines on one side, and the hills that stretch
towards the borders of Hungary on the other, reserving a
detailed examination of the internal structure of the great
chain for Chapter xiii. To settle this question we must make
up our mind as to the precise meaning we attach to the
name ' Alps.' Are we to use it to signify the whole of the
great range, that, stretching roughly from Genoa to Trieste,
joins the Apennines to the outliers of the Carpathians? In
this case our limits will be, on the W., the Col di Cadibona or
d'Altare (1624 ft.), between Turin and Savona, near Genoa,
and on the E., the Semmering Pass (3215 ft.), that leads from
Vienna past Marburg and Laibach to Trieste. But much of
the region thus included is snowless and below any possible
snow-line, however varying.

Now, as Mr. John Ball, that great authority on the Alps,
pointed out long ago, in common parlance that portion of
the great mountain chain is 'Alpine' in character, where the
height of the mountains is sufficient to maintain considerable
masses of perpetual snow. In short, ' the Alps ' are the snowy
and loftier part of the range, though of course all their summits
do not bear snow, some of the highest being rocky even at the
top, while others are snowy, though of comparatively moderate
height, rising on side ridges. In these pages the term ' Alps '
is employed always in the sense of the High or snowy Alps.
If we accept this definition, our limits will be on the W.
extremity the Col de Tenda (6145 ft.), leading from Cuneo
to Ventimiglia, or by a more devious route, across two lower
passes to Nice, while on the E. it will be the long-frequented
route over the Radstadter Tauern (5702 ft.), leading from the
Enns valley to the Mur valley, and then over the Katschberg
(5384 ft.) to the Drave valley. The principal pass is gained
on the N. either by the Pyhrn Pass (3100 ft.), leading from
Vienna past Linz to Liezen in the Enns valley, or through
the Lueg gorge direct from Salzburg. But the natural con-
tinuation of the Radstadter Tauern to the S., over the Predil
or Pontebba Passes, would exclude from the Alps all their

WHAT ARE 'THE ALPS'? 9

South-Eastern group. So from Villach in the Drave valley
we must take a great sweep to the E. and S.E. past Klagenfurt
and down the Drave valley to Marburg, and thence back along
the last bit of the Semmering Railway past Cilli and Laibach
to Trieste.

Let us now sum up the answer to the question we pro-
pounded at the head of this chapter. 'The Alps' are the
higher or snowy portion of the great mountain range that
shelters Italy from the outer world, and is crossed by a number
of passes. This range is limited by the Col de Tenda (W.) and
the Radstiidter Tauern (E.), while it is composed of a main water-
shed and other half-isolated groups, all, like the main ridge, send-
ing out side ridges, that enclose valleys, down which rush the
torrents (produced by the melting of the snows) many of which
spread themselves out into great lakes as they reach the plains,
and before they fall into one or the other sea.

CHAPTER II

THE PASTURES OF THE ALPS

IN any of the higher Alpine valleys we notice at once, above
the belt of forest that shelters the scattered homesteads in
and round the village, a succession of grassy slopes which mount
towards the region of eternal snow. These slopes are named
' Alps ' by the mountain dwellers, and are used as summer
pastures by them for their cattle, which otherwise could not
subsist on the fodder obtained on the lower meadows, this
being quite insufficient for their needs during the long winter.
Nowadays the lowest bit of these pastures has often passed
into private ownership (each bit is called a 'Vorsass,' or
'Voralp,' or 'Mayen'), and is used for grazing the cattle of
the owner in spring and autumn, while the hay mown there
in summer is reserved for their winter needs. But the rest
of these Alpine pastures is exclusively devoted to the pasturing
of cattle in summer, the higher portions being specially given
over to goats and sheep, while the cows, as the most important
item, occupy the middle and most productive stretches. These
bear different names in different portions of the chain of the
Alps, in which they are found everywhere — in the German-
speaking regions the term used is 'Alp' or 'Berg,' the form
' Aim ' being characteristic of the Tyrol ; in the French-speaking
districts, 'alpe' and 'montagne' are the ordinary names, while
' alpe ' or ' monte ' are the names found in the Italian-speaking
regions. Probably these summer pastures date back to the
first settlements in the Alpine valleys. The earhest instances
known to the present writer are the 'Alpes in Cenisio' (the
pastures on the plain of the Mont Cenis Pass) mentioned in

10

THE PASTURES OF THE ALPS n

739 ; the Sambtiser Alp on the Santis, in Appenzell, heard
of in 868 j and the Macugnaga Alp, at the head of the Val
Anzasca, which in 999 was the subject of an exchange between
the Archbishop of Milan and the monks of Arona. Sometimes,
as in the Dauphine and the Engadine, the sheep pastures are
let out to shepherds from Provence or the Bergamasque valleys
respectively. In other cases the pastures in a mountain valley
have been alienated to far-distant villages (this is not unfrequent
in some parts of the Tyrol, while in Switzerland the Oberaar
Alp, near the Grimsel, belongs to the village of Torbel, above
Stalden, on the Zermatt railway). A few are in the hands
of great monasteries {e.g. Engelberg and Einsiedeln) or of the
State, while others belong to private individuals or societies.
But, speaking generally, we may say that, as a rule, the high-
land summer pastures in an Alpine valley belong to the in-
habitants of that valley.

In certain cases the men of one valley have encroached on
the pastures of their neighbours, and have appropriated them,
though not included within the limits of their own proper
district. This dislocation, no doubt, goes far back in point of
date, and was in each case the result of a struggle between
rival herdsmen. We can trace a struggle of this kind best
in the valley of Engelberg, where the Blacken Alp, at the very
head of the glen, has never belonged to the monastery, but to
Attinghausen in Uri (opposite Altdorf) ; while the pastures of
the Nieder Surenen Alp below it were also secured by the
men of the same village after a long drawn-out contest with
the monks that lasted from 1273 to 15 13. The Uri men,
restless perhaps within the narrow limits to which Nature has
confined them, still own other pastures that topographically
lie in other regions — so the men of Spiringen, above Altdorf,
enjoy the splendid pastures (said to be the finest in Switzer-
land) of the Urnerboden, on the Glarus side of the Klausen
Pass, above Altdorf, though the men of Tessin have succeeded
in keeping hold of the pastures on the N. slope of the St. Gott-
hard, those between the pass and Hospenthal. Other cases of
a similar kind are the pastures on the Meiringen side of the Great

12 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Scheidegg, which (nearly down to Rosenlaui) belong to Grindel-
wald, and those on the N. side of the Gemmi (including the
Schwarenbach inn) are held by Leukerbad, in the Vallais,
while the case of the Oberaar Alp has been mentioned above.
So again the Fenga or Fimber Alp, on the proper Tyrolese
side of the chain, is reckoned as Swiss, and has for ages
belonged to Remiis and Sent, both in the Lower Engadine ;
while the Gross Fermunt pastures at the head of the Vorarl-
berg glen of Montafon belong to Ardez, also in the Lower
Engadine.

It is reckoned that in Switzerland (where special attention
is paid to the subject) there are about 4478 'Alps ' at present,
of an estimated capital value of rather over ;^3, 000,000, and
capable of supporting some 270,389 cattle in summer. There
may, of course, be more than one ' Alp ' in any given valley ; e.g.
in that of Grindelwald there are seven.

These summer pastures are only grazed for about three months
annually, the cattle going up thither towards the middle or end
of June, and coming down about the end of September. But
during this time the beasts do not always remain on the same
portion of the pasture. On every ' Alp ' there are generally two
or three (or even four) sets of huts, situated respectively on the
two, or three, or four horizontal strips of pasture (each called a
' Staffel ') into which that ' Alp ' is divided by a wooden hedge.
The cattle start in June on the lowest strip, work gradually
upwards to the highest (where they spend three weeks or so in
July and August), halt for some time on the way down at the
middle set of huts, and finish the summer at the lowest set of all.
The milk given by each cow is (unless it is specially fetched
by the owner of that cow) measured daily, and at the end of the
season the owner of each cow has the right to receive an amount
of cheese corresponding to the milk given by that cow, after
deducting the allowance of cheese, milk, etc., which the cheese-
maker (the ' Senn ' or ' fruitier ') and his men are entitled to
receive, as part of their wages. The cheeses are made daily, and
are kept in small huts (called ' Speicher '), with short stone legs,
which are easily to be distinguished on each ' Alp ' from those

THE PASTURES OF THE ALPS 13

wherein the herdsmen sleep (each of these is a ' chalet ' properly
so called), or from the stables used in case of bad weather or on
exceptional occasions.

There is an obvious danger, at any rate in the case of pastures
not owned by private individuals, that more cows will be sent up
annually than the particular pasture in question can support
without permanent damage. Hence an official estimate is made,
from time to time, sometimes at very long intervals, of the proper
number of cows that should be sent up. The amount of pasture
required to support a single cow for the summer is technically
termed a ' Kuhstoss,' or ' cow's portion/ which is reckoned
to suffice for two heifers, three calves or sheep, four pigs,
or eight goats (the numbers vary on different ' Alps '), in case
any one entitled to send up a cow prefers to graze in a particular
summer any of the animals just named.

Speaking quite generally (for customs and regulations differ
widely even in the same region), it may be said that the persons
entitled to rights of pasture must be burghers of the village to
which the particular pasture belongs. Sometimes they may let
out their right (' Kuhrecht') for the summer, or may exchange it
for rights on some other ' Alp,' so that the ' Besetzerschaft '
(occupiers) of an ' Alp ' in any given summer are not necessarily
identical with the ' Besitzerschaft ' (the owners of the rights of
pasture). These rights of pasture belong, as stated above, to
the burghers of that particular village or 'commune,' but not
necessarily to all burghers, for in some cases they are attached
to the possession of a particular bit of land'(entered in an official
Register), with which the right passes when the land is sold,
though in other cases the rights belong to each male burgher
of full age, as an individual, and not as a land-owner. In
this way no burgher can keep more cattle in winter than he
has a right to pasture on the 'Alp' of his village in summer,
unless (what such men are generally shy of doing, partly
through limited means) he buys hay for the extra cattle,
or owns meadow-land enough to support them, without need-
ing to utilise the summer pastures, or leases ' cow-rights ' from
others.

14 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Thus it will be seen that as cattle form the main riches of
every Alpine valley and village, the summer pastures are to that
valley or village and its inhabitants the pivot on which the whole
life of the people turns. No pastures, no cattle ; few pastures,
few cattle.

,

2^ f-

•■■< 3

3 <

'J:

CHAPTER III

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS

GIBBON tells us in his Autobiography that about 1783 'the
fashion of viewing the mountains and Glaciers ' had
attracted to his loved retreat at Lausanne many foreign visitors
on their way to wonder at these marvels. He was thinking, no
doubt, more especially of the glaciers of the valley of Chamonix.
But in any case his remark proves that the snowy region of the
Alps no longer inspired dread and awe, but rather a fearful
curiosity to see with one's own eyes the most extensive tract of
eternal snow to be found in Europe, that which covered the
loftiest summits of the Alps. This new fashion, among other
results, helped to familiarise the dwellers in the plains with the
wonders of the ice-world, and so to give them a juster idea of what
this frozen world really was. Now this was a result much to be
desired, for the older writers held some very quaint notions on
the subject. Pliny, Seneca, St. Augustine of Hippo, and
Claudian all believed that a crystal was simply very hard frozen
ice. This strange view, combated already by Solinus, was still
held by certain persons in the sixteenth century, says Josias
Simler (i 530-1576), who is doubtful on the point, though his
contemporaries, Sebastian Miinster (1489-1552) and Johannes
Stumpf (i 500-1 566), were quite sure that crystals were really
stones ; these (they held), though often found in the Alps, had
nothing to do with ice, which, however, they resembled closely
as to brilliance and purity. Another delusion on the part of
the older writers was that the snowy region of the Alps con-
stituted the one vast sea of ice, hardly, if ever, interrupted at any
point whatsoever. Hence, when it was absolutely necessary to

15

i6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

force a way across this frozen ocean, the point at which this was
done was called simply 'the Glacier.' This name was especi-
ally applied to the St. Theodule Pass (leading from Zermatt to
the valley of Aosta), whether under the name ' Der Gletscher '
by Giles Tschudi (1505-15 7 2), who himself actually crossed
it about 1528, as well as by Miinster and Stumpf, or under that
of ' Rosa ' by Simler ; the last-named writer here translates the
German term by a word borrowed from the patois of the valley
of Aosta, meaning a ' glacier ' and variously written ' roisa,'
'roesa,' 'ruise,' or 'reuse,' and undoubtedly the original of the
name Monte Rosa, which is the culminating point of that great
Sea of Ice. Now at first sight, if we look upwards from a valley,
we are strongly inclined to believe in this Sea of Ice, not merely
because of its superficial resemblance to the sea of water, but
because from this frozen ocean, hidden in mysterious retreats,
and lifted high above the workaday world, there flow down into
the valley great streams of ice, which resemble rivers, though
flowing from and not into the icy waste. It is only when we
come to explore ourselves the snowy region that we grasp the
fact that the Sea of Ice is by no means unbroken, but forms a
series of minor seas, separated, now at any rate, from each
other by extensive snowless tracts of ground. Yet, from the
historical, or rather prehistoric, point of view, this theory of a
Sea of Ice has an element of truth in it, for do not scientific
men now impress upon us the fact that once, in the Ice Age, the
whole of Europe was really an unbroken Sea of Ice, though,
owing to the retreat of the ice, this sea is now confined to the
highest portions of the Alpine chain?

Alpine glaciers form such a striking feature of the scenery of
a high mountain valley that they could not possibly be over-
looked, for they formed such immovable boundaries. It is
possible that the ' rupes alba' of the charter of 1091 founding
the Benedictine Priory of Chamonix refers to some real ' white
rock,' and not (as the present writer firmly believes) to the
glittering snows of Mont Blanc. But a Uttle later, even if we
put on one side two documents, said to be forged, and dated
1146 and 1 173, we have certain mention of the glaciers of Grind-

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS 17

ehvald in 1220, in 1246, in 1247, and in 1252, in each case as
one of the hmits of a piece of land. In 1353 we hear of the
'mountains called Glaciers, in German Gletscher,' which extend
at the head of the Simmenthal, In the sixteenth century the
three Swiss topographical writers already named, Miinster (1544),
Stumpf (1548), and Simler (1574), as well as Ulrich Campell
(about 1573), give long accounts of glaciers, but apparently
always at second hand. Campell naturally dwells on those in
the Lower Engadine (he was a native of Siis), but the others all
base their descriptions on the two Grindelwald glaciers. These,
in fact, were so well seen (alas, they have greatly shrunk since
those days !) from a very accessible valley, that they are generally
taken as the type of glaciers, as we see from the writings of
Thomas Schopf (1577), H. R. Rebmann (1606), Matthew Merian
(1642), J. J. Wagner (1680), J. H. Hottinger (1706), J. J.
Scheuchzer (1723), and A. von Haller (1732), for it is not till
the time of J. G. Altmann (1751) and of G. S. Gruner (1760)
that we find detailed descriptions of glaciers elsewhere in the
Alps. Merian first, as far as the present writer is aware, gives
(1642) an engraving of these glaciers (probably the first ever to
be so figured), and his plate long served as the typical representa-
tion of these marvellous natural phenomena. It was most likely
the source of the quaint illustration that accompanies the second
earliest (1673-4) account of glaciers (always those of Grindel-
wald) which was published in English. As those early English
accounts are very little known, save to a few students, we
venture to transcribe them for the benefit of our readers; all
three appeared in the Fhilosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society.

I. Phil. Trans., No. 49, pp. 982-3, June 21, 1669.

Extract of a Letter, Written by Mr. Muraltus [Johannes von M.,
1645-1733] ^/Zurich to M. Haak [Theodore Haak, 1605-1690,
an original member of the Royal Society, 1663], a Fellow of
the R. Society, concerning the Icy a?td Chrysiallin Mountains
(?/■ Helvetia, calPd the Gletscher. English' d out of Latin by the
Publisher, as follows : —
The highest Icy Mountains oi Helvetia dihovX Valesia ax^^ Augusta
B

i8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

[the Vallais and Aosta, here wrongly placed] in the canton of Bern ;
about Taminium [Tamins in the Grisons] and Tavetsch [Sedrun],
of the Rhaetians, are alwayes seen cover'd with Snow. The Snow,
melted by the heat of the Summer, other Snow being fain within
a little while after, is hardned into Ice, which by little and little in
a long tract of time depurating it-self turns into a Stone, not yeilding
in hardness & clearness to Chrystall. Such Stones closely Joyned
and compacted together compose a whole Mountain, and that a very
firm one ; though in Summer-time the Country-people have observed
it to burst asunder with great cracking, Thunder-like ; which is also
known to Hunters to their great cost, forasmuch as such cracks
and openings, being by the Winds covered with Snow, are the
death of those, that pass over them.

At the foot of these mountains are with great labour digg'd out
Chrystals, which are found among other fossils, of two sorts and
colors ; some of them are darkish and troubled, which by some
are call'd the Chrystal-ore, to be plenteously found in the ascent of
Mount Gotthard; others, transparent, very pure and clear as Venice-
glass ; sexangular, great and small : as in the mountains about
Valesia, and the town call'd Ursden [Andermatt in the Ursern valley,
and near the foot of the ascent to the St. Gotthard Pass] at the foot
of the Hill Schelenin [SchoUenen gorge] they are digg'd out and
sold at a good rate. Of this latter kind, my Parents, four years
agoe, transmitted a very bigg and fair one to Milan for 80 pound
sterling.

This is, what I have observed about these Hills ; What I shall
farther learn of the people, inhabiting thereabout, to whom I have
written a month since, I shall impart to you.

In September 1668.

2. Phil. Trans., No. 100, pp. 6191-2, February 9, 1673-4,

A farther Description attd Representation of the ley Mountain,
called the Gletscher, i7i the canton ^t/" Berne in Helvetia ; which
was formerly takett ftotice of in Numb. 49 of these Tracts.
This account was imparted to us from Paris by that worthy and
obliging person. Monsieur y/iJj/^'/ [Henri Justel, 1620-1693, Superin-
tendent of the Royal Library, St. James' Palace, London], who had
received it from a trusty hand living upon the place, as follows ; The
Icy Mountain, of which I have sent you the Scheme {See Tab. 2) de-
serves to be view'd. The letter A signifies the Mountain it self [the
Lower Grindelwald glacier], which is very high, and extends it self

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS 19

every year more and more over the neighbouring meadows, by incre-
ments that make a great noise and cracking. There are great holes
and caverns, which are made when the Ice bursts ; which happens at
all times, but especially in the Dog-days. Hunters do there hang up
their game they take during the great heat, to make it keep sweet
by that means. Very little of the surface melts in Summer, and
all freezeth again in the night. When the Sun shineth, there is seen
such a variety of colors as in a Prism.

B. is a rivolet [the Liitschine], issuing forth from under the Ice,
which is pretty deep and extremely cold.

C. are the Hutts, that were built at the beginning, at a consider-
able distance from the Mountain ; but at present they are nigh to
it by reason of the continued increase which this Ice maketh.

There is such an other Mountain near Gefteva [the chain of Mont
Blanc] and upon the Alpes [that is, the main ridge of the Alps]. A
certain Capucin told me, he had been upon the highest of these
mountains with a Trader in Crystal, who having driven his hammer
into one of these Rocks, and found it hollow and resonant, made a
hole into it, and thence drew out a substance like Talk ; which to
him was a sign there was Crystal. After which he made a great
hole with Gunpowder, and found Rock-crystal in it.

3. Fhil. Trans., No. 320, pp. 316-17, March and April, 1709.

Part of a Letter from William Burnet, Esq. ; F.R.S. [son of the cele-
brated bishop, Gilbert Burnet], to Dr. Hans Sloane, R.S. Seer.,
concerning the Icy Mountains of Switzerland.

Geneva, October 12, 170S.
Sir, — After I had been at Zurich I resolved to go my self and
see the Mountains of Ice in Switzerland. Accordingly I went to
the Gritidlcwald, a Mountain two Days journey from Bern. There
I saw, between two Mountains, like a River of Ice, which divides it
self in two Branches, and in its way from the Top of the Mountains
to the bottom swells in vast Heaps, some bigger than St. Paul's
church. The Original of which seems to have been this. These
Mountains are covered all the Year with Snow on their Tops ; this
Snow has been melted in the Summer, and has fallen to the Bottom
where the sun never reaches : There it has Frozen, which every
Body knows happens more easily to melted Snow than ordinary
Water. Thus every Year it has increased, till it has touched the
very Top. The reason why the Water has always frozen, tho' the
Sun in the middle of the Mountain, and higher, shines upon it some

20 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

part of the Day, is that the melted Water goes under the Ice
already formed and there Freezes, and so expanding it self raises
the Ice above it, and sometimes makes Cracks in it, that frighten
the whole Neighbourhood : The reason appears plainly, because
the upper Surface being solid, cannot be dilated without making
great Chinks, and that with a terrible noise. They told me, upon
the Place, that every seven Years the Mountain increases, and the
next seven decreases ; but I doubt their Observation is not exact,
and I suspect that they say it, to seem to know something singular.
Besides there are none there that have themselves observed it long
enough, to affirm any thing of that kind certainly. If there is any
ground in that Observation, it seems to be, that in the hottest
Summers it increases, and the more moderate ones it decreases,
there being then less melted Snow ; in which case it is at present,
as we know of late the Summers have been moderate (see Philosoph,
Transact., Numb. 49 and 100).

Half a century or so after these last words were written the
exploration of glaciers and the snowy region of the Alps
in general was taken in hand, as we shall see in Chapter ix.
below. Still later their true nature and principal characteristics
were ascertained by a long-continued series of personal investi-
gations, carried out by a number of well-trained men, who
personally studied the puzzling phenomena on the ice-fields
themselves.

Let us therefore sum up briefly the chief well-established
results which have been the consequence of these careful
investigations.

The snowy region of the Alps naturally means that portion
of the Alpine chain which is covered with ' perpetual snow.'
But the line of distinction between the snowless and the snowy
regions is not a hard-and-fast line. Ideally the ' snow-line ' is
the point at which the amount of snow that melts annually
exactly equals the amount that has fallen. But in any district
of the Alps, even in any single Alpine valley, this ideal limit
varies according to the exposure of a slope to the rays of
the sun, to the various winds, to the geological nature of the
mountain, etc., and is not determined once for all by the mere
elevation above the sea-level. Such local variations can be

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS 21

well seen when the weather has cleared after a snow-fall in
some Alpine valley in summer or early autumn. When the
clouds lift, the line right round the valley is as even as if
carved with a sharp knife. But as soon as the clouds vanish,
the snow melts more rapidly in one spot than in another, and
the line, before so even, becomes extraordinarily uneven and
irregular, as if cut away by a huge jagged knife.

Abandoning therefore any attempt to fix with scientific pre-
cision the snow-line in any given case, it is, of course, certain
that high up (to use a rather vague phrase) there is always snow
lying on the mountains, though the amount varies even here
from day to day. Lower down this precipitation takes the
form of rain, but high up it becomes snow owing to the fall
in the temperature of the air as one ascends the mountain
slopes. But snow does not constitute a glacier. Glacier ice
has indeed once been snow, but it has passed through the
intermediate stage of ' neve ' or ' Firn ' before becoming ice.
Hence we must distinguish carefully between snow, neve, and ice,
though all three are different forms of water.

The s?iozv that falls high up on the mountain slopes is dry,
loose, fine, and granular. Some of it melts, while some is
carried away by strong winds and then forms the ' tourmentes '
or 'Guxen,' those storms which are the dread of the mountain
dweller or mountain climber, just as are the sand-storms in
the desert to the inhabitants of such regions. But a certain
proportion of the snow that falls in winter remains on the
mountains, whether in hollows, or on slopes whence it is brought
down to those hollows by what are called ' avalanches.' Such
is the first stage.

Gradually the heat of the sun's rays by day and the fall in
the temperature of the air at night weld these loose grains or
particles more or less firmly together, the upper surface indeed
melting to some extent, but the main mass becoming hard and
compact. The body thus formed acquires weight and moves
slowly more or less down the mountain-side, becoming ever
more compact and homogeneous. Thus the 'snow' of the
highest regions is converted into ^ ficvP or 'Firn.' As this

22 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

mass is not fluid, like water, it is rent asunder when it moves
over the steep rock slope that forms its bed, and thus not
merely are crevasses or holes formed in it, but also the
peculiar phenomenon known as ' seracs.' These are huge
rectangular blocks or squares, rising independent of each other
amid yawning chasms where the descent is steep, and having
a singular creamy tint, to which they owe their name of 'seracs,'
that being the local term used at Chamonix for the shape
assumed by the ' second cheese' or whey, when compressed in
rectangular boxes.

Now the ' neve ' is not yet a ' gladerj' but it is the raw material
of a glacier, or the feeder of a glacier, though here and there
(as in the case of the Blaugletscherli, near Grindelwald) true ice
is never formed, so that the so-called glacier is really but a neve.
While the neve continues its downward course, it is squeezed
and confined more and more as it works its way through a narrow
gorge towards the valley or highland plain. This enormous
pressure converts the hard snow of the neve into real pure ice,
and so into a ' glacier.' In a glacier as in a neve the rents caused
by moving down a steep slope are called ' crevasses ' or
' Schriinde,' while a particular kind of rent, namely where a
steep upper slope of either meets a more level field of one or
the other, is distinguished by the special name of ' Bergschrund '
or 'rimaye.'

Now the surface of a glacier is not smooth and level, like a
skating-rink. It rises, even where roughly level, in many humps
or hummocks, caused in general by the varying action of the
sun's rays on the surface according as it is protected by sand or
stones, or not protected. Sometimes these humps are cones of
some feet in height, and are capped by a great boulder, which
has intercepted the action of the sun's rays ; these ice pillars,
crowned by a great rock, are known as Glacier Tables^ and are
among the most striking of glacial phenomena. Elsewhere
stones lie on the surface of the ice ; the little streams that run
over the surface in the daytime cannot pursue a straight course
perpendicular to the glacier, but are forced to hollow out
crooked channels for themselves. Now when a stream of this

k

4^'^^%^^ ''*■

■£-;'*t

.y-^

A CREVASSE ON THE DZASSET GLACIER (EASTERN GRAIANS)

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS 23

kind meets with a hole in the ice, still more when the hole
is large enough to be dignified by the name of a crevasse, the
water naturally seeks an issue towards the rock-bed beneath
the glacier. The falling water Httle by little wears away the
ice and enlarges this hole, so that a vertical shaft is formed
down which the stream rushes in a waterfall. The waterfalls
so formed are called ' moulins ' or ' Glacier Mills.' Should
the glacier we are studying descend over a steep underlying
bed of rock, the ice (as in the case of the ' neve ') is rent
asunder and forms 'crevasses,' while it is also broken in the
steepest parts into 'ice-falls.' Thus an 'ice-fall' is always
composed of towers or pinnacles of ice, which display the
wonderful azure tint characteristic of pure ice, which is very
easily distinguished from the dull creamy hue of the square
masses formed by a neve during a similar steep descent.

Now it is beyond question that glaciers (like the neves above,
which are their feeders) move downwards towards the valleys.
The/(2^/ of this movement was finally established as late as the
forties of the nineteenth century by a few persevering investigators,
among whom perhaps the chief was the Scotchman, J. D. Forbes
(1809- 1 868), who made a series of exact measurements on the
Mer de Glace at Chamonix during the summer of 1842. The
precise physical cause of this downward movement is still some-
what of a puzzle, and many theories have been propounded to ex-
plain it. Here we need only assume the generally admitted fact
of downward movement. Now ice, though plastic and therefore
yielding to pressure, cannot be stretched, but breaks with tension.
This is the real cause of crevasses. As in the case of a river,
the centre of a glacier moves more quickly than the sides, which
are retarded by the friction against the rock-walls that confine
them, while it is also true that the surface layer of ice moves
more quickly than those which underlie it, this too being owing
to friction against the rock-bed of the glacier. These strains
in different directions give rise to various kinds of crevasses,
some transverse (this is the most usual case), some marginal,
some longitudinal. Of course, as the inclination of the
rock-bed diminishes, the crevasses and ice-falls close up, and

24 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the ice becomes once again more or less level and homo-
geneous.

Another consequence of the fact that glaciers do really move
is that the weighty mass of ice leaves traces of its action on the
rock-bed. It grinds out the natural bosses and humps on the
rock, and so gives rise to what (when they can be seen after a
glacier has retreated) are called ' roches moutonnees,' for they
are rounded like the back of sheep. If, however, as often
happens, fragments of some of the harder kinds of rock fall
through the crevasses to the rock-bed of the glacier, the huge
mass of ice above them carries them on in its course and forces
them to scratch deep grooves or furrows, known as ' striations,'
in that rock-bed.

Once and once only in the course of my active Alpine career
of thirty-four years did I ever see this double process at work, or
rather, as the glacier moves very slowly, reaUse how it was carried
out. We were descending the lower ice-fall on the Wengern
Alp side of the Jungfraujoch. One tremendous crevasse could
neither be turned nor crossed. We were absolutely stopped.
But our brave and valiant leader, the famous guide. Christian
Aimer, of Grindelwald, did not hesitate. He caused a staircase
to be cut down the side of the great crevasse so that we could
reach the rock-bed beneath the glacier. Then he led us a short
distance over this rock-bed till he could cut another staircase up
the side of a crevasse lower than our foe, and so we regained the
surface of the ice after half an hour spent in the bowels of the
glacier. That took place in July 1872, and I have never for-
gotten how we actually saw in situ the rock-bed being smoothed
out and at the same time grooved by the fragments of harder
rock that were forced along it. Few mountaineers can have
been privileged to enjoy such a strange sight, which was worth
more than tons of theory and book-reading.

At a certain point in the downward progress of a glacier the
ice of which it is composed melts more rapidly than the increase
in bulk due to the fresh amount borne down annually to the snout
of the glacier. The glacier thus dissolves into water, which joins
the underground streams flowing out from beneath it. Together

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS 25

they form roaring torrents that sometimes fertilise mountain
valleys, sometimes cause great ravages therein. The water is of a
milky hue owing to the particles of rock and fine dust that are borne
down with it from the rock-bed beneath the glacier. These moun-
tain torrents join others, and form both waterfalls and lakes
before the greater river, the result of their junction (and most
Alpine rivers rise in glaciers), loses itself in one or other sea.

We have spoken several times of rocks and stones on the glacier.
These, of course, have fallen from above. When great masses
of rock and stones fall on the edge of a glacier they are called
'lateral moraines' ('Gandegg' is the Bernese name for moraines
in general), while the accumulations of rubbish at the foot of a
glacier form the 'terminal moraine.' When two glacier arms
unite, the lateral moraine of each become the ' medial moraine '
(or 'Gufer,' especially if composed of debris and not boulders)
of the larger stream formed by their union. Ancient moraines
found in spots now far away from any glaciers, help, with ' roches
moutonnees ' and ' striations,' to prove the existence of former
glaciers in that district. Another proof is the existence of huge
boulders, composed of rocks not found in that region, and so
presumed to have once been brought down on a now vanished
glacier, these rock islands being known as ' erratic boulders.' It is
said that B. F. Kuhn was the first, in an essay published in 1787,
to have conjectured the former great extension of glaciers in the
Alps, ancient moraines having put him on the right track. In
1802 and in 18 16 John Playfair was independently led to the
same conclusion by the study of ' erratic boulders,' while in 1821
I. Venetz (his essay appeared in print in 1833 only) brought
together documentary proofs of the advance and retreat of Swiss
glaciers in historical times. It is possible that Venetz either first
learnt of this fruitful theory from, or was confirmed in it by, the
acute observations made by a simple peasant, carpenter and
hunter, of Lourtier, in the Val de Bagnes in the Vallais, J. P.
Perraudin (i 767-1858). He is known to have told Charpentier
in 1815 that the existence of what were later called 'erratic
boulders ' had forced on him the belief that a huge glacier once
extended down the Dranse valley as far as Martigny, while a

26 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

MS. note of his (dated in 1818) has been preserved in which he
declares that, owing to striations (he calls them ' wounds made in
the living rock ') on certain rocks (now far from existing glaciers)
in his native valley, he felt certain that the Val de Bagnes had
once been occupied by a great glacier. All honour to this
humble observer ' avant la lettre,' whose name is briefly mentioned
by Venetz (1821) and by Charpentier (1841) — both personal
acquaintances of his — but whose real merits have only lately
(1899) been appreciated at their proper value by Professor F. A.
Forel, the great Swiss authority on glaciers. A rival of Per-
raudin's was the Chamonix guide, Marie Deville, who is
said to have come to a similar conclusion in 181 5, through
the evidence of 'erratic boulders' and 'striations' on the
rocks, both found in spots now far distant from any existing
glaciers.

Who can tell how soon glaciers that at present survive will be
known only by the rubbish heaps and striations that they have
left behind them? Practically all the Alpine glaciers are in
retreat, though occasionally some one or the other advances for
a short period. There are still, in 1908, glaciers proper in every
district of the chain of the Alps, even in the Maritime Alps, at one
extremity, and in the Dolomites and the Julie Alps at the other,
though on the more northerly summits (such as Glarnisch — the
Santis has only a ' neve ') and on the Zugspitze they are not of
any very great extent. The most extensive tracts of glacier ice
are to be found in the Dauphine Alps, the Graians, the Mont
Blanc chain and the Pennines, the Bernese Oberland, the Ber-
nina Alps, the Adamello group, the Ortler and Oetzthal ranges,
and the Tauern chain more to the E. The number of glaciers
is not known precisely, nor even the approximate area they cover,
though rough estimates have been made of the glaciers in some
specified groups. The three longest glaciers in the Alps are all
in the Bernese Oberland, though this range does not form part
of the main chain of the Alps — the Great Aletsch glacier is i6h
miles in length, the Unteraar and the Fiescher each 10 miles,
and the Gauli glacier is 8| miles. The Corner glacier and the
Mer de Glace at Chamonix can only boast of 9J miles, the next

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS 27

longest glacier in the Mont Blanc chain being that of Argentiere
(6| miles), while the Lower Grindelwald glacier is 6^ miles long.
In the Eastern Alps the Pasterze glacier (Gross Glockner) heads
the list with rather over 6^ miles, followed closely by two of the
Oetzthal glaciers, the Gepatsch (6-| miles), and the Hintereis
(6 miles).

Various terms are employed to designate glaciers. The English
word is the French term (pronounced differently), while the
Italian is ' ghiacciaio ' (more rarely ' ruise ') and the Swiss
• Gletscher.' In the Eastern Alps ' Ferner,' ' vedretta,' and
' Kees ' (the last named is special to Carinthia) are the names
employed. Rarely found names are ' Biegno ' (Vallais) and
' vadret ' (Engadine).

Alpine history is rich in stories of adventures on glaciers,
especially as to the unlucky individuals who have had the
misfortune to fall into crevasses. It is well known that after
a certain lapse of years objects dropped high up reappear at a
much lower level, so that various relics of the Hamel (1820) and
Arkwright accidents (1866) — both of which happened on the
' Ancien Passage ' not far from the summit of Mont Blanc —
came to light in 1861-3 and in 1897 respectively on the Bossons
glacier, far below the scene of the catastrophe. On September
I, 1886, the writer's Bernese guide and himself made the
discovery of the remains of some hunter or shepherd. We were
descending the great glaciers at the head of the Val de Rhemes
(one of the southern tributaries of the Aosta valley) when, at
the top of the great moraine at the foot of that glacier, our
attention was attracted by an odd series of regular curves on
the surface of the ice, each marked out by small dark objects.
On closer examination these proved to be fragments of a skull
and other bones, of a felt hat, of a wooden shoe with a nail in
it, a bit of cloth, a piece of a stick, etc. Clearly they were the
relics of some lonely wanderer who had perished on this huge
glacier years before. I reported our discovery to our host, the
cure at Notre Dame de Rhemes, that evening. He told me that
similar discoveries had been previously made, and that on one
occasion, with the relics, a piece of money, dating from the

28 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

seventeenth or eighteenth century, had come to light, thus
showing how long ago the misfortune had occurred.

One of the most extraordinary escapes from a fall into a
crevasse is that of Christian Bohren on the Upper Grindelwald
glacier on July 7, 1787. Authentic records of it have been
preserved, so that the main facts are beyond dispute. On the
day named, Bohren, with his servant. Christian Inabnit, was
leading some sheep and goats from a pasture on the slopes of the
Wetterhorn to another on those of the Mettenberg. Inabnit
was walking in front, when he heard a cry, and turning round,
saw that his master had disappeared, doubtless down a deep
crevasse. After having placed the animals in safety, Inabnit ran
back, and, according to his own account, on calling down a crevasse
near the presumed scene of the mishap, received an answer to
the effect that Bohren was alive but had a broken arm.
Bohren's version (published in August 1787 and repeated
verbally by him in 1810) of what followed is, that finding he
could stand upright, he soon noticed a mass of water flowing
near him. The temperature seemed to be too high for this
to be ice-water, so that he at once conjectured that by following
its upward course he would gain the outer air. This he
did, and on gaining the right edge of the glacier found that
the stream in question was the Weissbach, a torrent that
descends from the Wetterhorn slopes to the spot known as
' im Schlupf,' between the Enge and the Zybach's Flatten or
Tritten, just where it is still usual to cross the level ice between
the two lower ice-falls. Managing, with his broken arm, nearly
to reach the valley, he met the men who had come up with ropes
and ladders to rescue him. The servant's version (reported by
his son) is slightly different. On reaching the right edge
of the glacier again, it occurred to him that perhaps by follow-
ing the downward course of the Weissbach, he might find his
master. This he did, and so rescued him from his alarming
predicament. The estimates of the depth of the crevasse vary
from 64 to 25 ft. In any case the means of issue was afforded
by the Weissbach, and not (as often is stated) by the Liitschine
at the very foot of the glacier. Bohren's estimate of the

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS 29

distance he traversed under the ice is 130 ft. (not steps, as
has sometimes been said), while he apparently suffered no
permanent harm from his adventure, as he died in 181 7, at
the age of sixty-two. One of his grandsons was the well-known
guide, Peter Bohren, nicknamed the ' Gletscherwolf ' (died
in 1882).

Some of the customs and laws as to glaciers are curious.
Most quaint was the fifteenth-century feudal tenure by which
the inhabitants of certain villages of the Ayas valley (a tributary
of the Val d'Aosta) were bound to cover with earth the shining
glacier on the Becca Torche (9892 ft.) — so that the reflection
from the glittering snows might not injure the complexions of
the ladies of the house of Challant, to which the glen
belongs ! In more modern days the question of the legal
ownership of glaciers has become a matter of practical interest.
Much ice is taken from certain glaciers for the use of cities
in the plains : Who has the right to grant concessions ? Tolls
are often imposed on visitors penetrating into the artificially
made caverns at the base of other glaciers : Who should
authorise these tolls? By the retreat of the same glaciers,
considerable tracts of land are uncovered : To whom do they
belong ? A good deal of ink has been wasted by Alpine jurists
in elaborating ingenious theories to meet these cases. In
practice it has been held most generally that it is the State
which is the owner of the glaciers within its limits, rather than
the communes — so in Italy, in France, in the Tyrol, and in
the duchy of Salzburg. In Switzerland it is the Canton which
is the State, so that in Vallais, Vaud, and Bern the Canton
exercises the rights of ownership. In Vaud the commune of
Ormonts dessus declined in 1863 to allow the Diablerets glaciers
to be reckoned among the lands of the commune, objecting to
pay for the measuring of these fields of ice with a view to future
taxation. On the other hand, the commune of Bex in the same
Canton did lease the right to take ice from the glaciers in its
territory (1863), but in 1864 the cantonal authorities success-
fully resisted this claim, as an encroachment on the sovereign
rights of the Canton. In the Orisons, the communes have

30 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

always been very powerful (indeed they were long sovereigns),
so that we are not surprised to hear that in that region the
glaciers are held to belong to the owners of the land they
cover — in other words, to the communes. There is, however,
a curious exception in the case of the Scaletta glacier (above
Davos), which belongs to private individuals. Now there are
quite a number of ' Alps ' or mountain pastures in Switzerland
which are held as private property. Why should not a multi-
millionaire, seeking for novel methods of getting rid of his
wealth, purchase glaciers, and in fact ultimately ' make a
corner ' in them ? This prospect opens out vistas of amazing
and most amusing possibilities.

No account, however summary and brief, of the snowy
region of the Alps would be complete without some mention
of two phenomena that occur there. One is the existence of
tracts, sometimes of considerable extent, and especially in the
early summer, of Red Snow. This is found on snow slopes at
the head of glaciers rather than on the ice of the glacier
itself. It was long thought to be due to a minute insect, but
it is now certain that it is caused by an equally minute plant,
the Chlamydococais nivalis, which is pink in a state of
germination, becomes deep crimson later on, and ends in
black dust or mould. This red snow is a very surprising sight,
though not a very common one.

Now a few words as to the other phenomenon — Avalanches
(the word means that which descends to a valley), or ' Lauinen '
(spelt also ' Lawinen '), the Italian name being 'valanga,' and
that of the Engadine Ladin dialect, ' lavina.' It appears in
mediaeval Latin under several forms — ' labin^e ' (used in a
charter of Henry vi. of England, 1422-1461, as regards the
Hospice of the Great St. Bernard), of ' lowinae ' (in a document
of 1302, relating to the dangers encountered by the parishioners
of Morschach, above Brunnen on the Lake of Lucerne, on
their way to their parish church in Schwyz) and ' lavanchise '
(in two documents of 1475 ^^ regards the perils which would
be avoided if the tunnel beneath the Col de la Traversette, at
the N. foot of Monte Viso, were really to be pierced). Strictly

THE SNOWY REGION OF THE ALPS 31

speaking, the term ' avalanche ' appUes only to falls of snow or
ice, but it is also often used in case of falls of rock or of earth.
A vivid representation of a snow avalanche is given in a wood-
cut in Stumpf's book of 1548, probably the earliest known
picture of an avalanche.

The real true avalanche (' Grundlauine ') is composed of
half-frozen masses of snow, that have fallen on the mountain
slopes during winter, and descend with enormous force when
the thaw comes in spring, carrying all before them — trees,
stones, animals, men, etc. It is a frightful thing to witness
(even though from a safe distance) the descent of such an
avalanche, and to hear the crackhng and see the bending of
the mighty pines (often planted or preserved as a breakwater),
sometimes bodily uprooted, sometimes springing back after the
falling mass has passed over them — it is only later that the hoarse
roar reaches the ear. Avalanches of this kind usually follow fixed
channels and are known by special names, e.g. the ' Steglaui '
and the ' Schiissellaui ' in the Grindelwald valley ; but some-
times they quit their ordinary tracks, and then the damage is
greater (huts being carried off though built in what were thought
to be secure positions), as is also the horrified surprise of the
eye-witnesses. Another kind are the ' Staublauinen ' or
' avalanches de poussiere.' These are formed of dry, powdery
snow, and are less dangerous than the others ; however, if a
man is caught by one, he may easily be swept off his legs and
so lost, though it may simply flow over his devoted body.
Such occur largely in winter, though also in early autumn after
a first snow-fall. It is a marvellous sight to see the whole face
of the Wetterhorn covered by a fall of this kind, as with a veil
of lace, slowly and noiselessly dropping downwards. A rare
variety of this kind is the ' Hail avalanche,' which was well seen
during the great storm of August 3, 1906, when the great N.W.
wall of the Eiger was draped in hissing hail and rushing water.
' Glacier ' or ' ice ' avalanches are not very common. Such are
the falls from the Giessen and Guggi glaciers, admired by tourists
from the Wengern Alp, or at the foot of the Lower Grindelwald
glacier. In 1636 and 1819 there was a great fall from the Bies

32 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

glacier in the Zermatt valley, while in 1782 and 1895 similar
falls took place on the Altels, above the Gemmi path.

And now our readers can put to themselves the question
addressed by the Lord to Job (xxxviii. verse 22, R.V.) :
'Hast thou entered into the treasuries of the snow?' bearing
ever in mind that 'entering' is not the same as 'knowing.'

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CHAPTER IV

alpine flowers
By George Yeld

ALPINE flowers may be roughly divided into two classes —
IX. the larger ones which are found in the pastures and
woods, and the smaller which grow for the most part higher up
and make beautiful rocks and crevices, and even the rugged
face of cliffs and precipices up to altitudes of well over
10,000 ft.

Let me speak of the larger flowers first. It is, of course,
impossible to give a list of them, and I shall ask my readers to
accompany me to pastures and slopes where some of the most
striking of them may be seen in masses. Indeed, for the most
part, these larger flowers come not in single spies but in
battahons, and in any given spot a particular flower is often
dominant. I once crossed the Great St. Bernard in a late
season, when there was snow all about the hospice, and when
we descended on the Italian side, the higher meadows had not
been touched by the cattle. No exhibition of hardy flowers
could possibly compete with the glories of the first great stretch
or basin of pasture which arrested my steps. Tennyson, in one
of his early poems, sings :

' The gold-eyed Kingcups fine ;
The frail bluebell peereth over
Rare broidry of the purple clover' ;

but here the blossoms of the Globe flower {Trollius europaeus),
in absolute perfection of a gold without alloy, flamed in the
sunshine by the thousand : the dainty white cups of Ranunculus
c

34 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

platanifolius gave here and there a flash of white ; and the less
stately but even more beautiful blue masses of Alpine Forget-
me-nots added perhaps the most lovely of all hues to the taller
masses of white and gold. Many another bloom — flower-masses
of Veronicas, for example — was to be found among them, but
these three dominated the meadow — an Alpine triad never to be
forgotten.

I have seen in the Italian Val Ferret roods — I will not say
acres — of Gentiana purpurea, a little sombre, perhaps, but as
they shimmered in the sunlight the flowers had a sumptuous
richness of colouring not easily to be surpassed. Lower down
was the Martagon lily in plenty, less vivid in colour, but still
effective. The Veratrum, with its tall column of black or
green blossoms and broad green leaves, is another of the larger
flowers which is very effective. I have often found it near to
the purple Gentian. I remember a spot — I think on the
Torrent Alp above Leukerbad — where it was very plentiful. It
grew amongst the last survivors of a pine forest and below a
zone of the purple Gentian. For a short distance the two
plants were to be found mixed together. The great yellow
Gentian (^Gentiana luted) also claimed its share of the
ground.

Perhaps the most perfect of all the Alpine flowers is the
Alpine Columbine {Aquilegia alpina) ; I remember coming
across it in fair numbers in a pasture that sloped to the Buthier
torrent in the Valpelline. Some of the plants had been
trodden down by the cattle, but enough were left to enable one
to judge of this Columbine's supreme beauty. The large blue
and white flowers are delicately poised on fairly tall stems and
are graceful in the extreme. Perhaps the best flowers of it I
ever saw were to be found — it is thirty years ago — not so far
from the Riffelberg Hotel. They grew in a spot not very easy
of access. When placed on the dinner-table with other choice
flowers from the same neighbourhood they awakened a chorus
of admiration from the ladies.

Rarely, too, though in several places in the Eastern Graians,
I have seen Ranunculus pyrenaeus cover the meadow with

ALPINE FLOWERS 35

blossoms white and shapely as a breadth of snowdrops in
spring, but not so closely packed together. This Ranunculus
does not droop but holds its cup upright.

It is not difficult to conjure up the sight of a great sloping
meadow covered with myriads of the fragrant Poet's Narcissus
above a great lake whose waters sparkle in the sunshine. Nor
is it hard to conceive the splendour of the green terrace high
above the great trough of the Val Tournanche, with the
presence of the dark Cervin always felt, if not seen, when
countless Alpine anemones, whether white or sulphur-yellow,
have opened wide their shapely cups under the persuasion of
the sun. Sometimes you may have a musical accompaniment
to the study of such beautiful gardens of nature in the mellow
notes of distant cattle bells, or the rising and falling melody of
the merry mountain brook.

The common foxglove is strikingly ornamental, with its tall
spires of purple and white, in many English lanes and woodlands.
Shorten the stems and make the flowers bright yellow, and you
have the effect produced by the yellow foxglove in the Alps.
The best flowers I have chanced upon were on the road from
Andermatt to Goschenen, just below the Devil's Bridge, and on
the way from the Col du Bonhomme to Bourg St. Maurice in
the Tarentaise.

Biscuteha laevigata is a plant for which I must own I have a
rather exaggerated liking. It grows largely in the Cogne
meadows and in the rough ground by the side of the torrent
from the Valnontey. Its masses of yellow blossom remind me
of a rock Alyssum with long stems.

Large yellow flowers of Arnica mofitana in a mass are most
eff"ective. My readers will recollect Tennyson's 'Field of
charlock in the sudden sun.' Deepen the yellow and give the
field a sharp slope and you will have some inkling of a mass of
arnica on the rough green above the Marjelensee ; though to
make the picture exact you must add an undergrowth of forget-
me-nots and other little blossoms. Indeed the larger flowers
are generally set in a mosaic of tiny blooms.

One often finds Orchises in the meadows, one or two of

36 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

which are sweet-scented. Perhaps the sweetest is the narrow-
leaved Nigritella {Nigriiclla angustifolia), with its strong Vanilla
fragrance. I have seen its dark rose-coloured blossoms in large
numbers on the hillside above the left bank of the Oreo, close
to Ceresole Reale.

In moist places Butterworts are effective with their shining,
oily, pale yellow-green leaves and blue or white flowers. The
bogbean enjoys a watery habitat. Its white, rather woolly,
flowers, slightly flushed with purple, are very fragrant. The
bird's-eye primrose {Primula fori?iosa) loves a moist soil, and in
a mass is quite an eff"ective flower, though the individual
blossoms are small. I have seen it in May by the side of the
Mont Cenis Railway, quite high up on the Italian side, in such
numbers as to almost colour the spot where it grew ; though I
dare say 1 should not have noticed it if I had not been
specially looking for it.

St. Bruno's lily, Anthericum {Paradisia) liliastrum, has a fine
white bloom with yellow anthers, but this is a flower which I
do not so much connect with masses of blossom as with purity of
colour. One plant in full flower, later than its fellows, I remember
well, for I found it just before we took to the rocks above the
woods near La Vachey in the Italian Val Ferret. Perhaps I re-
member it the better because near by it in our descent in the
afternoon we had to climb through a little waterfall which, in the
morning, had been hard frozen.

Late in the Alpine season the pale purple Autumn Crocus,
as it is often called, Colchicum autumnale, clothes the meadows
with myriads of flowers. Above Villeneuve in the Aosta
valley, under the shade of huge chestnuts and in orchards but
lately shorn by the scythe, it is very numerous. Perhaps it is
most welcome to the eyes on the way home from pass or peak.
Last year it gave one quite a homely feeling to find it fairly high
up the Lotschenthal, after we had spent a long day on the
snow and ice of the grim mountain wall which bounds that
narrow valley on its south side.

Sometimes the Alpine traveller is pleasantly surprised by
sweet scents when no flowers are visible. I remember lunching

ALPINE FLOWERS 37

beside a torrent in the Val di Forzo, a tributary of the Val
d'Orco, when, as I leant back against the green bank above the
little stream by the side of which we were resting, a very sweet
scent came floating on the air. I immediately began to search for
the source of the fragrance and found it in some well-developed
clumps of the mountain Cyclamen {Cycla??ie?i europaeum). This
plant in its favourite habitat, when in large numbers and in full
flower, is one of the most charming of all.

The flowering shrubs of the Alps are many and attractive.
Perhaps first we should put the Daphnes, many of which exhale
an exquisite fragrance. The best known is the Garland Flower
{Daphne Cneorum), whose deep-pink blossoms inherit a full
measure of sweet scent. Azalea procumbens, which, as its
name suggests, clings to the ground, is a notable plant.

Cytisi of several kinds produce a great effect. ' Emerging,'
as Mr. Hinchliff {Alpine Journal, v. p. 106) says, 'from the
pleasant shade upon the open Creux de Champ, you fancy
you see golden curtains hanging from ridges of brown rock,
and festooned among the deep green branches of the pine
forest. What a combination of colour ! Scramble up through
beds of oak-fern and groves of that splendid Spiraea which
waves its huge white crests before the breeze. Look up
presently, and you will find what the golden curtain is made of.
It is a magnificent Laburnum, the Cytisus alpinus, whose roots
are buried between the rocks above, while a thousand tails of
yellow blossom hang down in clusters before your delighted
eyes.'

The Alpine rhododendron, commonly called the Alpine rose,
once gave me one of the most effective sights in the flower-world
that I can recall. I came upon it in a late season — acres of
Rhododendron ferrugineum, in a forest where the trees grew at
some distance apart. The brightness of the colour — a rich
red, the extent of the flower show, the setting of pines and the
background of stately ramparts of rock with an occasional
waterfall, made the scene unique ; and the memory of it is
proportionately vivid. Rhododendron chafnaecistus, a native of
the Eastern Alps, is a small but beautiful shrub with paler and

38 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

more delicate blooms than Rhododendron ferrugijjeum. The
Alpine Clematis, with its comparatively large blue blossoms, is
a very ornamental climber.

The wild roses of the Alps, if they do not spread themselves
abroad with the careless profusion which characterises their
sisters of English hedgerows, have blossoms quite as bright, and
in many cases a fragrance quite as delightful. I recall on one
occasion, on my way from Cogne to Gimilian, the village
high above the right bank of the Grand' Eyvia, in the early
morning, noticing an unusually sweet scent in the air. A
diligent search discovered the source of it in some bushes of a
pure white rose such as I do not remember to have seen
elsewhere.

Let us now speak of the smaller and more delicate flowers.
The feature of the Alpine flora which strikes most strongly
those who see true Alpine flowers for the first time is the
brilliancy of the colouring. As to the effect of height upon
flowers I quote the following from the Alpine Club edition of
the General Introduction to Mr. Ball's Alpine Guide (p. cxvi) :
' If we examine individuals of the same species growing at diff"erent
heights we find that with increasing altitude there is generally
a deepening of the tints of the flowers ; for instance, the light
blue of the forget-me-not becomes deeper, the yellow of hawk-
weeds tends towards orange. It is a well-known fact that the
colours or shades of Alpine flowers change when the plants are
cultivated in gardens. In any family of flowering-plants in
which flowers having different tints occur, it is often found that
the yellow flowers are the simplest and most lowly organised,
and that the blue flowers are the most highly organised.
Further, it is known that, speaking broadly, in a family the
successive advance of the complication of the flowers corre-
sponds more or less to the colours in the following order : —
yellow, white, pink, red, crimson, violet, blue. In Alpine
flowers there is a larger percentage of the colours corresponding
genetically to high organisation than there is in the lowland.
For instance, the yellow of the lowland primrose and cowslip
is supplemented by the violet tints of several species in the

ALPINE FLOWERS 39

Alps. There is a pink-flowered Alpine saxifrage in addition to
the ordinary yellow and white-flowered species. An orange-red
Alpine hawkweed contrasts with the paler yellow lowland
species. There are many flowers which are violet, or brilliant
sapphire, or deep ultramarine [Cainpanula, Phyteuma,
Saussured) ; the gentians vary in their different species from
yellow, whitish green, to deep yet vivid blue ; the speedwells
( Veronica) from pink to sapphire with a central spot, white or
yellow, fringed with orange or vermilion. Frequently, too, the
Alpine flowers have stronger scents, and pour out more honey
than their lowland allies.'

Just as it is not always the most beautiful woman that wins
the most hearts, so it is not always the most beautiful flower that
charms us most. Ranuncuhis glacialis has a modest blossom of
white flushed with pink, rising above firm leaves of dark — I
might almost say — sombre green ; but of all Alpine flowers
which venture to make a home on the high rocks of the Alps
this is the one which has perhaps most delighted me. ' Not as
the feeblest and yet the favourite,' but as so often present to
smile upon a difficult rock climb or to greet the mountaineer's
eyes on the first rocks after an exciting passage of step-cutting
in steep ice. I have found it at 12,400 ft. on the Pic de la
Lune or Pointe de Ceresole in the mountains of Cogne, in a
massive tuft, with many blossoms and a wealth of vigorous
leaves. I once found strong tufts of it with many blooms rich
in colouring on the last rocks of La Vierge in the midst of the
great Geant Glacier, growing as freely as a house-leek on the
crumbling wall of an old English garden, regardless of its wintry
surroundings. I have met with it on the summit of the Tour
de Creton on the great ridge which bounds the Val Tournanche
on the west. I have come upon a perfect nursery of it at the
top of the great cliffs between the much-crevassed Dzasset
Glacier and the great Plan de la Tribulation on the west of the
Valnontey above Cogne. I have seen it near the bleak head
of La Noire ; but by far the most beautiful blossoms of it that
I ever beheld were growing on the exposed north ridge of the
shapely Becca di Monciair at the head of the Val Savaranche.

40 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

We found them in an exposed position, two tiny blossoms on a
sparse fringe of firm green leaves, much smaller in size than is
usual, with less pink in their colouring, but with a purer gold
in their centres than I ever knew them show elsewhere. It
surely seemed as though their endurance of the keen frost and
the biting wind had ennobled them, as so many of the purest of
the high-growing Alpine plants are ennobled : as though beauty
born of passionate fortitude had passed into their faces.

The fairy forget-me-not iyEritrichiuin nafiuni) is a sight to
dream of, not to tell — the most perfect of blues with the most
shapely of tiny cups. Blue is perhaps of all colours the most
difficult to define, but no blue that I have ever seen — whether
that of the turquoise or the sapphire, or of the Sicilian sea on
a perfect day — can excel the blue of this little flower. On a
grassy ridge in Italy, at a height of 9000 ft., I have seen it
in quantity. I have seen it in Switzerland at about the same
height flourishing, but not so plentiful ; but to behold it in
perfection you must climb higher. Then in some sunlit little
hollow on a rock-wall facing south at 1 0,000 ft. you shall
look upon it in perfection. The blossoms cover the hairy
leaves from which the plant takes its name. They are as
innocent, as taking, as childlike as our own ' Little speedwell's
darling blue,' though richer in colour. One of the biggest
tufts I ever found was on the south side of one of the Gemelli
della Roccia Viva in the Eastern Graian Alps, at a height of
probably close upon 11,000 ft. Its beauty appealed not only
to me but to my guides. A cornice of red rock protected it,
though I doubt not the moisture from above somehow trickled
to its roots.

Androsace glacialis is another of the dwellers on bleak
heights and precipitous walls. There are other flowers — not
Cleopatras, but Charmians — that find a place in our story.
Such an one is Thlaspi rohindifolmm, with shining green leaves
and pale purple or mauve flowers, unpretentious but welcome
as an old friend.

The red Rockfoil {Saxifraga oppositifolia) I have seen in
better condition in the English Lake district than in Switzer-

ALPINE FLOWERS 41

land, for it is generally out of flower in August. But to any one
who finds it in perfection it is a very beautiful flower. On
the southern side of the St. Gotthard tunnel, high up, it was
to be seen in splendid tufts in mid- April, 1906. Red is
always an eff"ective colour, and the red of this flower is set
off by the brown of the anthers and the finely cut foliage. Of
the many other saxifrages I will mention only the great pyra-
midal-flowering Saxifraga Cotyledon. Of this I have seen
wonderful examples in rocky hollows and ravines in the Eastern
Graians. Tall, graceful, starred with a profusion of blossoms,
they rose from strong, firm, silver-edged tufts of green, and
waved their twinkling splendours over our heads in homes too
high to be reached without a ladder.

Of Gentians much might be said, but no one can properly
appreciate them who has not seen twenty tufts of Gentiatia
verna or bavarica in full bloom in full sunshine. The blue is
full and deep, and, like that of the fairy forget-me-not, very
difficult to describe. I may say without exaggeration that I
have seen patches of it so large and of such vivid colour that
the little basin where they grew shone blue in the sun.

Gentiatia acauHs, too, must not be passed over. It is a
beautiful and effective plant, and luckily well known in English
gardens under the name of Gentianella. But in talking of
blues I must not forget the pale blue bells of Campanula
cenisia. This flower should be seen in a mass, as I have found
it in the Graians. To the west of the ice-fall of the great
Trajo glacier under the Grivoletta it may be admired in pro-
fusion. Hundreds of pale blue bells over delicate green fohage
give quite a striking effect for so small a flower.

The Campanula excisa is a pretty flower. It is one of the
special flowers of the Berisal district, where it may be found
almost everywhere. It first struck me as an effective little
plant high up in the Baltscheiderthal, where flowers were by
no means numerous.

Androsace (late Aretia) Vitaliana is a charming Alpine flower.
The finest display of it I have seen was in a narrow, dry
torrent bed above the Cerru lake at the head of the Val

42 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

d'Orco. Hundreds of bright blossoms of a soft yellow fell
like golden fringes over the rough stones.

Alpine pinks have many beauties. Dianthus glacialis is
delightful. Our own Cheddar pink, Dianthus caesius, is very
pretty, but my favourite is Dianthus neglectus. A specially
fine form of this variety is found in the Val Piantonetto in the
South-eastern Graians. It is of a soft rose colour, and the
flower is, comparatively speaking, large.

There are some plants which may be found comparatively
low down, and also comparatively high up. Of these is
Chrysanthetnum alpinimi, always welcome. I have found it
even at 10,000 ft. growing quite freely, but this was in Italy.
The last time I saw it high up was on the Beichgrat in the
Bernese Oberland, after bad weather, and there the frost had
shrivelled it. Where it grows freely its masses of bloom
captivate the eye at once.

Let me take you to an Alpine slope at from 8000 to
9000 ft. in a late season, say in the first week of August.
There through the melting snow breaks the Soldanella of a
fairy-like grace ; there the Alpine Wallflower shows a blossom
much brighter in colour though shorter by a good deal in the
stem than it ever puts forth in an English garden; there
anemones, including the light purple Halleri, poise themselves
in the sun. Forget-me-nots sparkle ' Azure of Heaven's own
tinct'; primulas shine softly in crevices of rock: saxifrages
cover the stones with trails of blossom, or spring in little
sheets of bloom from masses of finely cut leaves.

There are pansies too, possibly with a mark of heavy footsteps
near them, for there are villages in the Italian Alps where the
pansy is worn on August 15th by many villagers, and the
Alpine slope we are talking of is the florist which supplies
them. The most beautiful pansies I ever found were growing
in the Arpisson basin above the Arpisson chalets near Cogne,
famous for their view of the stately Grivola. In the first
meadow of the alp, above the gorge through which the torrent
falls in noisy haste, the myriads of rivulets that hurried through
the grass were that morning fringed with icicles, and such

ALPINE FLOWERS 43

sparkling jewellery as the night's frost had hung upon them :
higher up the snow lay lightly, and edged the tiny blossoms
of pansies and forget-me-nots. No splendid tear such as fell
from Tennyson's passion-flower appeals to the flower-lover half
as much as these half-frozen drops on the fragrant cup of the
Viola. There were too, on that slope I spoke of, gentians
of the richest blue ; A?iemone verfialis, with its setting of rich,
glossy brown hairs ; and there also Silene acaulis covered
rosettes of shining leaves with multitudinous blooms of
pleasing red.

Let me here quote one of the best accounts of a host of
Alpine flowers ever written, by one who loved and knew them
passing well.^

' On such Alps as those of the Faulhom there are acres of blue and
white crocuses in full blossom under the snow ; and as the fierce
midsummer sun daily diminishes the size of the snow patches,
thousands of their blossoms emerge and gradually lift up with
thankfulness their oppressed heads. If you raise a few handfuls
of rather deeper snow, you will find hundreds more of them lying
almost flat upon the ground, and anxiously waiting for their share
of the great warmth-giver. A few feet only from the retiring snow,
where the soil is still soaked with its melting, the purple bells and
drooping fringe of the Soldanella alpina spring as by magic out of
the ground which is yet brown from its burial during six months of
wintry sleep. Lovely indeed is this waking from slumber, this
melting of death into life. On one of those bright first days of
July we ascended the INIannlichen, a grassy mountain about 7700
ft. high, which forms the angle between the two Liitschine rivers,
and thus commands the valley of Lauterbrunnen on one side and
that of Grindelwald on the other. The collection of flowers grew
rapidly as we moved upwards. Pink rhododendrons and purple
columbines were supplemented by yellow anemones and blue
gentians ; then came the white crests of Anemone narcissiflora,
beautiful to behold ; then crocuses, blue and white, and beds of
the lilac-belled soldanella on the margin of the snow. In open
places upon the top was an abundance of the delicate Lloydia
serotina and Myosotis alpestris, which far excels all other forms of
forget-me-not.'

1 Mr. T. W. Hinchliff, [ubi supra, pp. io8-q).

44 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

There are some flowers which win a place in the mountaineer's
regard, not so much for their intrinsic beauty, as because they
clothe with their greenery or soften with the brightness of their
blossoms the rough moraine or the wet rocks whence water
oozes forth, or the rugged side of a mountain brook. The
Alpine Toad Flax {Linaria alpina), with its purple and orange
flowers, gives the climber many a pleasant surprise as he picks
his way over rough ground. Saxifraga aizoides sometimes
hides the birthplace of tiny streams with masses of its green
leaves and flowers that vary much in colour ; and even such
an unobtrusive plant as the creeping willow plays no incon-
siderable part in softening the rough spaces between moraine
and mountain pasture. In such spots, too, the mountain
Avens {Dryas octopetala), with its white and gold, is often
delightful.

Mountain Cresses, with their little white flowers, can make
quite a brave show when they have established themselves on
the walls of an abysmal chasm absolutely impossible of ascent
or descent for the cleverest of climbers. On the Plattenhorner,
to the east of the Gemmi, in the gaunt ravines which seam
the wall that faces the Torrent Alp, I marked them with
admiration. You may look with awe down one of these chasms
and snatch a fearful glimpse of green meadow many hundred
feet below ; whilst on the chasm's walls here and there these
cresses hang tenaciously.

There are many everlasting flowers to be found in the Alps,
the most famous of which is, of course, the Edelweiss {Gnapha-
lium kontopodium). Though there are many slopes easy of
access where it grows freely, yet every year many visitors to
the Alps who are not accustomed to climbing of any sort
lose their lives in attempting to gather this much-desired
flower in places where the ground is difficult. It is, by the
way, quite easy of cultivation in English gardens. There are,
too, many plants which are gathered for the making of liqueurs.
I once met on the slopes below the Herbetet at Cogne a man
laden with a great sack of plants which he had been collecting
for this purpose. The best known and most popular is, I

ALPINE FLOWERS 45

believe, Artemisia mutellifia, ' le vrai genepy,' a plant also used
medicinally by the peasants.

We have given in this chapter but a brief account of the most
prominent and beautiful of Alpine flowers. Whole clans of
charming plants have been omitted, for example, the Arenarias
and Fotefitilias, the Sedums and Sempervivuffis ; the most
famous of the last-mentioned family is the Cobweb Houseleek
{Sempervivum araduwideum), described by Mr. William Robin-
son as 'one of the most singular of Alpine plants, with tiny
rosettes of fleshy leaves covered at the top with a thick white
down, which intertwines itself all over the leaves like a spider's
web.' Ferns, which are among the most beautiful of all
Nature's creations, have been intentionally omitted.

CHAPTER V

SOME BEASTS AND BIRDS OF THE ALPS
By Howard V. Knox

NO account of the Alps can be complete without some notice,
however brief, of the principal Beasts and Birds which are
still to be found in that region, a subject that is very interesting in
many ways. In these pages we can touch only on a few repre-
sentatives of each class, such, on the one hand, as the Bear, the
Bouquetin, the Chamois, the Marmot, the White Hare, the Fox,
etc. ; and, on the other, the Lammergeier, the Golden Eagle, the
Alpine Chough, the Ptarmigan and the Wall-creeper. In all these
cases we limit ourselves to the species that occur in the Alps
(whether French, Swiss, Italian, or Austrian), the Fauna of which
is, of course, by no means co-extensive with that of Switzerland,
as is sometimes stated.

A. — Some Beasts of the Alps

Not so very long ago, historically speaking, the Brown Bear
( Ursus arctos) was to be found throughout the whole of Europe,
including Britam. But at the present day its range in that part
of the world is restricted to the vast forests in the North and to
the great mountain systems that extend from the Caucasus to
the Pyrenees. In the Western and Eastern Alps it is now very
rare indeed. In the Central or Swiss Alps its last remaining
stronghold is in the dense forests of pine and scrub to the east of
Zernetz in the Lower Engadine. In that neighbourhood, up to
the year 1884, its existence was demonstrated, though hardly
favoured, by the fact that one or more specimens were secured

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SOME BEASTS AND BIRDS OF THE ALPS 47

almost yearly as trophies of the chase. Since that date, however,
the slaughter of a bear in the Swiss Alps is ever more rarely
chronicled.

To human beings the brown bear is apt to be more alarming
than dangerous. Except when wounded, or on guard over its
cubs, or very hard pressed by hunger, it, as a rule, ostentatiously
effaces itself on the approach of man. But Bruin, though sub-
sisting chiefly on a vegetarian diet, when this fails, will often
leave his hidden retreat in order to make a nocturnal raid on
sheep or cattle. He even, on occasion, breaks into the hut
wherein the goats are shut up, and drags forth a victim.

In dealing with the subject of bears in the Alps it is impossible
to avoid all mention of the bear-pit at Berne. With hardly a
break since 15 13 this has been a regular institution of the town,
in keeping with the adoption of a bear for the arms of both town
and Canton. As far back as 1224 the official seal of the town
(founded in 1191) displayed a bear, while the traditional deriva-
tion of the name Berne from ' Baren ' (bears), though formerly
scouted by many learned men, now receives a certain measure of
support from recent historical writers. In view of the special
association of bears with the town and Canton of Berne, it is
interesting to note that the last bear that was killed, in the wild
state, within the limits of the Canton, was shot in 181 9 in the
neighbourhood of Riederen, a hamlet in the Diemtigen glen of
the Simmenthal.

One of the very last well-authenticated cases of the occurrence
of bears in the Canton of Berne was that of a formidable animal
which, for several weeks in the autumn of 1792, haunted the
neighbourhood of the Little Scheidegg, near Grindelwald. It
decimated the flocks that grazed the pastures on either slope of
that pass, but, though hunts were continually organised for the
purpose of ridding the country-side of this terror. Bruin for a long
time contrived to evade the hunters. But at last three men of
Grindelwald came upon him at no great height above their
valley, and each of their bullets found a billet in his body.
Nevertheless the bear made off, bullets and all, and for the space
of more than an hour clambered up the wooded slopes of the

48 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Mannlichen. Here he had the misfortune to encounter yet a
fourth Grindelwalder, a young fellow named Hans Kaufmann.
This youth levelled his musket at the monster, and pulled the
trigger. But, owing presumably to the snowy weather, the
musket refused to go off, while the bear, on the other hand,
resolutely came on. Rearing himself on his hind legs he sought
to enfold the hunter in a close embrace. Kaufmann, however,
stood his ground bravely, and repelled these advances with the
butt-end of his weapon, which he used with such vigour that,
while the musket flew into pieces, the bear sank dead at his feet.
For his valiant conduct Kaufmann received from the cantonal
authorities, in addition to the usual sura awarded for the slaughter
of a bear, ' a special recompense of a new louis d'or^ The
musket, too, was replaced by the free gift of a new weapon, taken
from the public armoury.

The protection extended by the kings of Italy to the Bou(iuetm
or Steinbock {Capra ibex) has so far saved it from the fate
which seems to threaten the brown bear. In 1856-7 Victor
Emmanuel 11. acquired exclusive hunting rights in the district of
Cogne (S. of the valley of Aosta), and placed the existing herd of
bouquetins under the strictest supervision. That there were then
any of these animals left at all was in all probability due to
the action taken by the Piedmontese Government, at the instance
of the naturalist Zumstein, in 182 1, when severe laws were passed
prohibiting the pursuit of the few specimens of this species to be
found within its territory. Under the watchful care of the king's
keepers the original small herd quickly increased in numbers to
about three hundred, and continues to flourish to the present
day in the Cogne district, though outside that region the animal,
except as a straggler, is no longer to be met with, for the colonies
transported to the Orisons and the Tyrol have not long survived.
In fact, these bouquetins are now the sole representatives of their
species, for though allied species of ibex occur elsewhere in
Europe, the form found in the Alps is peculiar to that region.

The dwindling in numbers of the bouquetin, a process which,
in one district, was so fortunately arrested in the very nick of
time, as just described, had already been going on during a

SOME BEASTS AND BIRDS OF THE ALPS 49

lengthy period. As early as the beginning of the sixteenth
century this diminution had made itself felt, and by the end of
the same century the animal had become extremely rare, even
in those parts (such as the Grisons) wherein it was formerly
most abundant. Though now extirpated from Swiss soil, it has
left a memento of its former presence, as it is borne on the arms
of Interlaken and of Unterseen, as well as on those of the Grey
League of the Grisons and of the city of Coire.

A further cause (perhaps also partly an effect) of the rarity
of the bouquetin, even in mediaeval times, was the belief in the
therapeutic efficacy of different parts of its body, a belief which,
of course, greatly enhanced the value of the carcase. There
was also a superstition to the effect that a goblet fashioned from
its horns would enable the user to detect the presence of any
poison in the liquid contents. All sorts of wild tales, indeed,
were current in those days concerning the bouquetin and its
ways. Even so genuine a naturalist as the celebrated Conrad
Gesner, writing in the middle of the sixteenth century, repro-
duces in all good faith the legend that the bouquetin, when it
feels that the sands of its life are running low, betakes itself to
some pinnacle of lofty loneliness, and there, hooking a horn to
the summit, proceeds madly to twirl round, till at last the horn
is worn through, and the animal is precipitated into the
depths. It is curious, by the way, that a somewhat similar tale
is told (by the same author) of the chamois. The chamois, he
says, when hard pressed by the hunter, and driven into some
position whence further escape is impossible, obligingly hangs
itself up on a rock by its hooked horns (presumably thus acknow-
ledging that the game is up) and so suffers itself to be taken.

While the bouquetin belongs to the family of the goat, the
Chamois {Rupicapra tragus) has the distinction of being, in
Western Europe, the sole representative of the antelope tribe.
Less powerful-looking, but shapelier, than the bouquetin, the
chamois, by its fearless and graceful carriage, proclaims its sure
possession of the hills. Marvellous as are the stories often told
as to the climbing powers of the chamois, it is, in truth, almost
impossible to exaggerate this animal's mastery of the rocks.

D

50 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

The true habitat of the chamois in the summer months is the
region between the snow-Hmit and the Hmit of trees. The old
bucks, however, commonly lead a solitary and somewhat sedentary
life on the upper fringe of the pine forests, until they sally forth
in the early winter to seek, and often to battle for, a mate. The
does and young males herd together in companies of from five
to thirty individuals, and live at a much greater altitude. While
feeding, they generally depend for safety on the vigilance of a
sentinel — invariably an old female — which, on the approach of an
enemy, gives the signal of alarm by a loud sibilant whistle.

On the arrival of winter the chamois are driven down to a level
lower than that of their summer haunts, though even at this
season they hardly ever come much below the tree-limit. They
usually take up their night-quarters huddled together under some
spreading pine, whence at daybreak they ascend for a time
to the inhospitable-looking slopes above, where the ground is too
steep to hold more than a thin coating of snow. Then, scratch-
ing away the snow with their forefeet, they eat whatever moss or
dried herbage they find beneath.

In winter the old bucks develop a mane-like fringe of dark
bristly hairs along the back. This is the so-called ' Gemsbart ' —
beard in the proper sense the animal does not possess — so highly
prized by the chamois-hunter, who carefully picks out the longest
hairs, and puts them together in a tuft, to be worn in his hat, as
a token of his prowess, on festal occasions.

Almost everywhere in the Western and Central Alps — less
frequently in the Eastern Alps — the wanderer in the region
just below the snow-line will hear the loud, shrill whistle, which
is the alarm signal of the Marmot {Arctomys marmota). This
rodent is, in fact, more often heard than seen, its dark-brown
colouring rendering it, when at rest, very difficult to distinguish
among the sparse herbage and rocks of its lofty home. But
any one who makes good use of his eyes is sure to get an occa-
sional sight of this animal, as it scuttles off to its burrow with an
agility hardly to be expected from its rather quaint and squat
little figure.

The marmot lives in colonies of varying numbers, but, in

SOME BEASTS AND BIRDS OF THE ALPS 51

summer at least, each burrow is inhabited by a single family.
Sometimes, but not always, the same burrow is used as a
summer and as a winter home. The change from summer
to winter quarters, wherever it takes place, involves a descent
to a lower level. The animals prepare for winter by carrying
into their sleeping-room a quantity of dry grass, with which
the floor is entirely covered, so as to provide a comfortable
couch for the two or three families that usually club together
at this season. About the middle of October the burrow is
closed up, from within, by a closely packed wad, composed
chiefly of hay, which, however, is placed, not at the entrance
of the burrow, but at a distance of one or two feet therefrom.
In the snug home thus carefully prepared the whole party,
numbering from five to fifteen individuals, sleep away the long
winter months, unless they are dug out by some ruthless hunter.
In this state of hibernation the vital activities are almost entirely
suspended.

The White Hare {Lepus variabilis) and the Stoat (^Foetorius
ermifiea), though widely dissociated in the scheme of scientific
classification, and related often as hunter and hunted, are alike
in the colour-change they undergo from brown in summer to
white in winter, when the stoat is known as the ermi?ie. Both
the white hare and the stoat range in the Alps to a height of
10,000 ft. It should be observed that the white hare is a
totally distinct species from the common hare {Lepus timidus),
though the two species often mingle in the upper and lower
limits of their respective regions, while hybrids between them
are not uncommon in a natural state.

A near relative of the stoat, viz. the Stone-Marten {Maries
foina), and another familiar carnivore, the Common Fox {Canis
vulpes), are sometimes found in summer at a great elevation in
the Alps. The mountain-dwelling fox has usually a grey appear-
ance in winter owing to the hairs of its head and back being at
that season tipped with white. In this condition of fur it is
known as the ' Silver Fox,' and the skin has then a considerable
commercial value.

The little Snow-mouse {Arvicola nivalis) must not be omitted

52 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

from our list of animals found in the Alps. It was first dis-
covered in 1841 by Martins on the Faulhorn. Of all European
mammals it is the one which lives constantly at the greatest
elevation. It is abundant in many parts of the Alps at an
altitude of about 7000 ft., and has been observed on the
Finsteraarhorn at a height of considerably over 12,000 ft. above
the sea-level. How it contrives to support life through the
long winter is something of a puzzle. It does not hibernate
like the marmot, but leads an active existence within the
tunnels which it drives between the deep-lying snow and the
surface of the earth.

B. — Some Birds of the Alps

The Lammergeier {Gyphactus barbatus), the finest of all the
European birds of prey, was once common throughout the
entire chain of the Alps. But so persecuted has it been that
it is doubtful whether any individuals whatsoever linger in some
fastness of the mountains, though it is possible that the Italian
Alps still harbour some specimens. The partly vulturine appear-
ance of the bird is due to the form of the beak, for the head
and neck are fully clothed with feathers. It owes the name
of Bearded Vulture (as also its scientinc name) to the short
black tuft of bristly feathers under the chin. Well-authenticated
instances are on record of the Lammergeier having attacked
children, while popular tradition credits it with a propensity
for carrying off babies to its eyrie, when the chance offers. It
does not seek carrion for choice, but prefers to kill its own
game. If this be of large size (for example, a chamois) the
bird's method of attack is to buffet the victim with its wings,
till the harassed quarry is driven over a precipice. It is
especially partial to bones as an article of diet, and, when they
are too large to be swallowed whole, it is said to drop them
from a height, so as to break them into smaller pieces. This
habit of the bird was known to the ancients. According to
PHny {Nat. Hist., x. 3), it was a Lammergeier which caused the
death of ^Eschylus by dropping a tortoise from on high on to

SOME BEASTS AND BIRDS OF THE ALPS 53

the poet's bald head, which it regarded as an attractive object
on which to break the obdurate shell.

The following account is given by Prof. C. Zeller (in his
Alpentiere im Wechsel der Zeii, Leipzig, 1892, p. 40-1) of the
last Lammergeier known to have met its death in the Swiss
Alps : ' Its home was the Canton of the Vallais, where for the
space of a quarter of a century it dwelt among the jagged peaks
of the Lotschenthal. The inhabitants, whose cats disappeared
with a surprising regularity, knew the bird intimately. It was
a female of advanced age, as was plain from its almost white
under-parts, and was familiarly known as ' salt Wyb ' (the Old
Woman). To this bird the well-known eyrie on the Hohgleifen
(10,762 ft.) once belonged. Her mate was shot in 1862.
From that time onwards the eyrie was unoccupied. Whether
it was that no fresh suitor offered himself, or that the ageing
matron no longer cared to take upon herself the responsibilities of
a family, the ' Old Woman ' led a lonely widowed Hfe for a quarter
of a century. The venerable dame of the Lotschenthal Alps
came at last to a lamentable end. She was found dead, above
Visp, in February, 1887, beside the corpse of a poisoned fox.
Her skin subsequently found an abode in the Natural History
Museum at Lausanne.'

Though now much rarer in the Alps than formerly, the
Golden Ea^le {Aquila chrysactus) is still occasionally to be
seen there, singly or in the company of its mate, wheeling high
in wide circles, in search of prey. Hares, ptarmigan, foxes,
marmots, young chamois, yearly yield the eagle a heavy tribute,
but smaller animals are also brought under contribution. As
a nesting-place the Golden Eagle usually chooses a ledge about
half-way up some great mountain cliff, while the eyrie is almost
invariably protected against molestation from above by being
placed under an overhanging bit of rock. The nest is a bulky
platform of fair-sized sticks, with a slight covering of smaller
boughs and of roots.

The least observant of travellers in the Alps can hardly fail to
have his attention attracted by the Alpine Chough {Pyrrhocorax
alpinus), a bird which belongs pre-eminently to the upper regions

54 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

of rock and snow. Of the size and general appearance of a
jackdaw, it is easily distinguished from that bird by its slighter
build, its slender curved yellow bill, and its coral-red legs, while
the cry, a shrill, loud chirrup, which it constantly emits, also
makes it easy to identify at a considerable distance. The
Alpine Chough usually lives in large bands, and the evolutions
of a flock form a beautiful sight. In summer this bird is often
found at enormous heights, and it has even been observed on the
summit of Monte Rosa (15,217 ft.). It breeds in colonies, at
a height of from 5000 to 9000 ft., on precipitous cliffs, the nest
being built in a fissure of the rock. It never leaves the neighbour-
hood of the mountains, though in a severe winter it may descend
to the plains at their base.

Another characteristic bird of the higher regions is the
Ptarmigan {Lagopus itiutus), or ' Schneehuhn,' which in hot
summer weather is sometimes found high up on the neve. Even
in winter — at which season the whiteness of the plumage which
it then assumes matches that of the snow-mantle — it prefers to
remain above the tree-limit, though it occasionally descends to
the upper fringe of the pine forests.

Of the smaller birds that are to be found in the snow region
perhaps the most representative, and certainly the most attractive,
is the Wall-creeper {Tichodroina f/mraria), which has been aptly
called the 'humming-bird of the Alps.' The brilliant scarlet
bands and the pure white spots on the wings are all the more
effective in contrast with the quiet grey and black of its general
colouring ; and are displayed to the best advantage as the bird,
its wings half-spread, creeps with mouse-like movements over the
face of the bare and precipitous rocks that form its favourite
haunt.

CHAPTER VI

THE ALPINE FOLK

HITHERTO we have considered the Alps in themselves,
as a great mountain chain, rising in peaks, or sinking
at intervals to form passes, in parts covered with eternal snow,
yet in parts affording rich pastures to cattle in summer ; a
chain here rugged, there smiling, and yet, save in the case
of the cattle driven up in summer to the high pastures, a
chain inhabited but by a few living creatures, though produc-
ing many glorious flowers born only to waste their sweetness on
the desert air.

We must now go on to speak of the presence of man in the
Alps, and of the influences which mountains and men have
exercised on each other.

We have not the slightest idea when man first penetrated
into the recesses of the Alps, nor what manner of men they
were who first had the courage to explore these mysterious
valleys and push up the banks of rushing mountain torrents
which flowed down from snows that seemed to touch the sky.
A few skeletons scattered here and there, some pieces of
jewellery of a singularly artistic nature, possibly a few rude
monuments, scarcely now to be distinguished from the rocks
carved by Nature herself — that is all we know of the first
inhabitants of the Alps. If they had chroniclers who set forth
their varying fortunes, or bards who sang the deeds of their
doughty heroes, neither chronicles nor epics have been
preserved for future generations. Anthropologists may weave
elaborate and somewhat cobwebby theories as to the origin of this
primitive folk, based on the length of the heads of their skeletons,

£5

56 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

or the size of the limbs belonging thereto, but they can tell us
nothing about them which is of human interest — their speech,
their manners, their customs, their political or social institu-
tions. In short, the aboriginal inhabitants of the Alps are to
us merely a set of specimens shown in museums, ticketed
and dust-covered, and devoid of attraction save to a few learned
pundits. The Alps remained for centuries a dim, mysterious
region, which indeed gave rise to the great rivers that fertilised
Central Europe, and which was made the scene of many a
legendary tale or adventure, or the home of gods and demi-
gods. But of its actual inhabitants the civilised world, then
limited, in that part of Europe, to Italy, knew nothing definite
till their attention was most painfully awakened by the thunder-
clap of the news that Hannibal, the Carthaginian, had succeeded
in forcing his way across them (b.c. 218), and was descending
from these icy heights in order to ravage the fair plains of
Italy. But of his great feat of courage we have no con-
temporary accounts, nor, unluckily for us, was he accompanied
by a swarm of ' special correspondents ' who would have
unveiled the Alps to us as they have recently unveiled Lhassa.
We only gather echoes of this passage of the Alps, echoes that
resound in writers of a later age, and that have been wafted
so long from one quarter to the other that the impression left
on us is of a roaring and rushing of the air that confuses
instead of informing our minds.

Still later, when the Romans actually came into contact with
the inhabitants of the Alps, they did not pay much attention
to them, considering them as ' barbarians ' unworthy to be
noticed by men of superior culture, and their country as a
horrible desert to be traversed as quickly as possible in order
that the smiling plains on the other slope of this inhospitable
chain might be reached, and annexed with the slightest loss of
time to the wide dominions of these 'superior persons.' The
main object of Ceesar, Pompey, and their lieutenants was not
to tarry in the Alps in order to study the language and customs
of their inhabitants, but to utilise some of them as guides,
porters, and so on, while keeping a tight hand on the rest in

THE ALPINE FOLK 57

order to secure the safety of the main route across the Alps.
What would we not give now for the report of some inquirer
who, like the well-known Teuton of our own days, had caused
himself to be shut up in a cage in a forest with a phonograph,
in order to reproduce with the utmost nicety the language of
the natives, whether men or monkeys ! Yet the conquest
of the Alps by the Romans had its importance, in that it
first brought the inhabitants of the region face to face with
a civilised race. Political relations were established between
them, and the political history of the Alps (of which more in
the next chapter) had begun.

The knowledge of the Alpine folk possessed by the outer
world has, roughly speaking, kept pace with the closer political
relations established with them. The original inhabitants gave
way before or were absorbed by successive streams of wanderers,
following each other like the waves of the ocean. Some of
these tribes pressed ahead and were, in time, lost among the
inhabitants of the plains on the S. slope of the great chain.
Others, less energetic, played the part of loiterers, were left
behind by their more active comrades, and so settled down in
the higher valleys on one side or other of the divide. Others,
finding their farther progress barred by the advance-guard,
or being repelled with indignation as troublesome intruders,
once more, reluctantly, took up their staves and retraced their
steps till, somewhere, in some valley, they found a resting-
place for their weary feet. These new inhabitants came from
all sides, repeatedly crossed each other's tracks, and wandered
in every direction, finally reproducing in the Alps, from the
point of race and language, phenomena similar to those
which the geologist tells us appeared there long before
and describes under the names of inverted and folded strata.
As the centuries rolled by, the stronger tribes absorbed those
that, for any reason, were more weakly, and sometimes even
(to the confusion of future historians and philologists) assumed
the names and arms, as it were, of the absorbed peoples.
Tribal characteristics were gradually smoothed out and reduced
to a few leading types. Yet even in historic days a counter-

58 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

current to this process of ironing out made itself felt. Emigra-
tions, though on a smaller scale, took place from time to time,
for instance that of the German-speaking Vallaisans in the
thirteenth century to the S., the N. and the E., so that
Vallaisan traces, whether in the spoken dialect or in the
local names, are to this day found in the valleys S. of Monte
Rosa, and in the Val Formazza, and in the glens N. of the
great ice-clad range of the Bernese Oberland, and far away in
the Orisons, near the sources of the Rhine. Add to these
belated emigrations the shiftings due to political causes, and
we shall better understand how it comes to pass that, while
in the Alps there are ' natural frontiers ' from the purely
physical point of view, there are none so far as regards the
nationality (as shown by the language) of their inhabitants
when considered as articulate beings and not as political pawns
or units. The theory of natural frontiers has, of course, an
enormous historical importance, and is often based on the
language spoken by the persons whom the speaker ' desires
to annex.' Not a single one of the existing Alpine powers can
boast of ruling all the folk whose mother-tongue is identical
with, or similar to, its own. These variations from a cast-iron
theory are, of course, due to historical causes ; in other words,
are the result of the processes sketched out above, which are
still, to a smaller or a greater extent, going on under our own
eyes. The Alps, in short, far from having hemmed the
' Wandering of the Nations ' at any date from the fifth century
onwards, have rather served as a great highway, with many
branching byways, which have led the wanderers up and down,
right and left, in zigzags and by straight lines, till the labyrinth
seems to lack any clue whatsoever. Yet there is one, that
namely afforded by history, though it only enables us to unravel
the tangled skein with much labour and trouble, and then
with merely a high degree of probability and not with absolute
certainty. At first sight, however, it seems as if the exceptions
to a few general principles are very insignificant, though, as is
usually the case, the more closely we study a subject the more
intricate does it appear to be.

THE ALPINE FOLK 59

In the next chapter the historical events which have produced
this shot-silk result will be set forth in outUne, for many
volumes would be required to describe them in detail, so that
the patience of the reader would give way perhaps even before
that of the author and the publisher. Here let us try to get
some general idea of the existing state of things from several
points of view, political, linguistic, and religious, and then we
can better appreciate the rather numerous exceptions which
sometimes, though not invariably, serve to impress a rule on
the mind of an industrious student.

I. As regards political allegiance the Alpine folk are partly
Republicans (not all of the same hue), partly imperialists, and
partly royalists. The judicious reader may draw varying con-
clusions from this seeming impartiality in the high sphere of
politics. Some may point to the connection between the free air
of the Alps and that of a republican form of government. Others
may plead that one of these two Alpine Republics is of very modern
date, to which reproach a stickler for accuracy may retort that
the same is even truer of the two royal governments, while a
third critic may point out that, after all, the single Empire is
not in much better case. Yet allowing that the present state
of things is on the whole very modern, the reactionary as well
as the revolutionist may still hope that soon there will be a
change in one or other direction. In point of antiquity the
Swiss Republic leads the way, having been founded in 1291,
though it was later when the Cantons, which extend in whole
or in part over the great divide of the Alps, entered the
Confederation as full members — both Tessin and the Orisons
in 1803 and the Vallais in 18 15, their wide territories being
separated by the narrow gorge of Uri, one of the three original
Cantons. Over five centuries younger than the Swiss Con-
federation are the Empire of Austria (the Emperor Francis 11.
assumed the title of Emperor of Austria in 1804, though he
did not resign that of Holy Roman Emperor till 1806) and
the kingdom of Bavaria (1806). Still more modern are the

6o THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

kingdom of Italy (1861, while Venetia was won in 1866) and
the French Republic (1870).

Probably the Alpine state which rules the most extensive
portion of the Alps is Italy, which practically holds their entire
S. slope, with the rather important exceptions of Tessin (Swiss)
and the Trentino (Austrian). On the other slope France claims
nearly the whole W. or N. slope of the Western Alps, save a bit
of the Vallais ; the Swiss Confederation the whole of the Central
Alps, with a bit (the Lower Vallais) of the Western Alps, and
Austria practically the whole of the Eastern Alps. Bavaria's share
takes in a bit of the Eastern Alps (N. of the Vorarlberg and the
Tyrol), which a German writer plaintively describes as ' only
a portion of the N. slope of a part of the low limestone range,'
and as ' rather an approach to the Alps than a fragment of the
Alps themselves.' Yet this small fragment is the only region of
the Alps, high or low, that actually belongs to the German Father-
land, a fact which arouses different sentiments in different men.

Such are the main lines on which the Alps are at present
partitioned among the great Alpine powers. France (and
naturally Bavaria) alone now owns not a yard on the opposite
side of the divide save possibly a bit of the top of Mont Blanc.
The three other states, however, all extend their claws across
the physical frontier.

Let us take the case of Italy first. On looking at a detailed
map of the Maritime Alps the eye is at once struck by the
fact that a considerable region S. of the main chain (which
here runs E. and W.) is now included in Italian territory.
This region became Italian for two entirely different reasons
which apply to its two divisions. The portion which, roughly
speaking, lies W. of the Col de Tenda and the Roja valley,
though it is E. of the main divide, takes in the heads of several
Alpine glens — those of Castiglione and Mollieres are affluents
of the Tinee, itself an affluent of the Var, while those of
Boreon, Finestre, and Gordolasca are tributaries of the Vesubie,
which joins the Var a little below its meeting with the Tinee.
It is believed, though the matter is wrapped in some obscurity,
that all these glens (which formed part of the county of Nice)

THE ALPINE FOLK 6i

were in i860 left by France to Italy as a graceful concession
to the hunter-king, Victor Emmanuel n., who had all the
hunting rights on the N. side of the divide, and desired also
to have those on the S. slope. The history of the other portion
is quite different. The Roja valley, descending from the Col
de Ten da to the sea at Ventimiglia, is E. of the main divide
of the Alps that runs S. from the Mont Clapier to the
Turbie spur. But Italy now possesses only the lower (Venti-
miglia) and the upper (Tenda) thirds of the glen. The middle
bit (Fontan, Saorge, and Breil, all on the E. slope of the main
divide of the Alps) belongs to France, which is thus able to block
the valley, and to prevent (if it wishes) the construction of the
railway from the S. foot of the Col de Tenda right down the
Roja valley to Ventimiglia. The truth is that this middle third
of the valley formed part of the county of Nice, having about
1250 separated itself from the rest of the valley and done
homage to the Count of Provence, from whom the House
of Savoy got the county of Nice in 1388, making it over to
France in i860. But the upper and lower thirds remained in
the hands of the original lords of the whole valley, the Counts
of Ventimiglia (in the case of the upper third of a cadet branch,
the Counts of Tenda), and from them passed in two bits (the lower,
after belonging to the Grimaldi family and Genoa, in 1815, and
the upper bit in 1575) to the House of Savoy. Thus what is
certainly an anomaly of practical importance is shown to have its
roots in the far past. In i860 France did get practically all the
county of Nice, but no part of the county of Ventimiglia or of
Tenda. Two other small fragments of territory on the ' wrong '
{i.e. N.) slope of the Alps also belong to Italy — the wild Val di
Lei, whose stream runs down to the Swiss Avers valley, and so
to the Hinter Rhine, and the fertile hay-glen of Livigno,
through which the Spol descends to join the Inn in the Lower
Engadine. These two districts came to Italy in 1859, as the
Val di Lei was in the county of Chiavenna, and Livigno in
that of Bormio, both, with the Valtelline, then passing, as
included in ' Lombardy,' to the House of Savoy, which in 1861
obtained the crown of united Italy.

62 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Surprising as it may seem, the possessions of the Swiss Con-
federation on the S. slope of the Alps are more extensive than
those of Italy on the other slope. In the thirteenth century the
small German-speaking villages of Simplon (Simpeln) and
Gondo (Gunz or Ruden) were colonised from the Vallais, and,
with it, became Swiss in 1815. More important is the Italian-
speaking Canton of Tessin, formed in 1803 out of various fifteenth
and sixteenth century conquests of the Swiss : the portions best-
known to foreigners are the Val Leventina, down which roars
the St. Gotthard train after passing through the great tunnel, and
the frequented resorts of Lugano and Locarno. The Swiss Con-
federation also holds (since the formation of the Canton of the
Grisons in 1803) three Itahan-speaking valleys, those of Mesocco
(with its tributary of Calanca) that joins the Val Leventina
at Bellinzona, and, farther E., the better-known glens of
Bregaglia and Poschiavo. In 1480 Mesocco entered the Ober
Bund (one of the Three Rsetian Leagues) through its lords,
the Trivulzio family of Milan (who in 1549 sold all their
rights to the valley dwellers), while the other glens respectively
in 1367 and 1408, through their lord, the Bishop of Coire,
became part of the League of God's House. Yet another
Grisons valley, the upper bit of that of Munster, close to Livigno,
and watered by the Ram, an affluent of the upper Adige, lies on
the S. slope of the Alps: it, too, came to the Grisons (1762)
as heir of the Bishop of Coire, and as its inhabitants are mostly
Ladin-speaking, we see that the Swiss territories on the S, slope
of the Alps are occupied by three populations speaking three
distinct tongues.

Finally, Ajistria holds since 18 15 the whole tract S. of the
Brenner Pass, which practically consists of the territories of the
secularised (1803) bishoprics of Brixen (German-speaking save
the Ladin-speaking folk of the Groden valley) and of Trent
(Italian-speaking, with the exception of a few German islets).
Austria, too, holds the considerable Slavonic-speaking region in
and near the Isonzo valley, W. of the main chain, as well as a
more extensive territory of the same kind E. of the divide.

Such is the present political condition of the Alpine portions

THE ALPINE FOLK 63

of the great Alpine states, which, it should be noticed, are far
from being exclusively Alpine (as were smaller states in the
Middle Ages, like the Dauphine, the Vallais, the Grisons, the
Tyrol, the bishopric of Trent, etc.), for all possess wide plains as
well as Alpine districts.

It is only possible to estimate roughly the present number of
the inhabitants of the Alpine districts. They probably do not
exceed 9,000,000 in all. About 3,000,000 are German-speaking,
while the French-speaking folk may be put at about 2,300,000,
being slightly exceeded by those who claim Italian as their
mother-tongue. The Slavonic-speaking dwellers of the Alps
number less than a million. The remainder speak some dialect
of a quaint old tongue, either Romonsch (the Vorder Rhine
valley) or Ladin (Engadine, Groden valley, and Friuli).

2. These remarks as to the numbers of the inhabitants of the
Alps naturally lead us on to consider the different mother-tongues
spoken at present by the Alpine folk. Speaking generally, we
may say that while Alpine Italy is almost wholly Italian-speaking,
Alpine France speaks only French, and Alpine Bavaria only
German. But Alpine Switzerland speaks German, French, and
Italian, as well as the singular Romonsch and Ladin dialects,
while Alpine Austria, though mainly German-speaking, contains
also a very fair number of Italian-speaking and Slavonic-speaking
folk. However, limiting ourselves to the N. slope of the Alps, we
may say roughly that the Western Alps are mainly French-speak-
ing, while the Central Alps revel in four or five tongues, as noted
above, though the Eastern Alps can only boast of German, Italian,
and Slavonic. Of course, in the Alps, dialects of these tongues
are mostly spoken, the purer forms being confined to the plains.

Yet, just as we found that politically Italy, the Swiss Con-
federation, and Austria owned districts on the S. slope of the
Alpine chain, so numerous linguistic islets are to be discovered
in the midst of populations speaking other tongues.

In order, as it were, to vary a little the dull uniformity of the
prevalence of Italian only in Italy, there are within the political

64 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

frontiers of that land two regions wherein French is still the
language of the natives, though the Government ofificials are
doing all they can to suppress it. The former of these two regions
takes in several glens W. and S.W. of Turin. The Val Pellice
and the Val Germanasca have simply kept the French tongue
which the Vaudois or Waldensians brought with them when they
migrated thither from Dauphine. Other valleys, such as the
upper Val Varaita (just S. of the Monte Viso), the Chisone
valley (above Pinerolo), and the Dora Riparia valley (Cesanne,
Oulx, Bardonneche, and Exilles, all near the Mont Cenis rail-
way), still contain a French-speaking population, because for
many ages they formed part, from the political point of view, of
Dauphine, and were only gained in 17 13 (as we shall see in the
next chapter) by the House of Savoy. Even more interesting
is the case of the valley of Aosta, with its tributary glens.
Enclosed by the lofty ranges of Mont Blanc, the Mont Velan,
the Matterhorn, and the Grand Paradis, and reached as easily
from the French-speaking part of the Vallais over the Great St.
Bernard Pass, as from the equally French-speaking district of
the Tarentaise over the Little St. Bernard, one would really be
astonished if it had not kept its French dialect. For, as E. A.
Freeman was never tired of urging, this valley is simply a piece
of Burgundy on the other side of the Alps. Since 575 a.d.,
when it was snatched from the Lombards by the Franks, Aosta
has, with scarcely a break, always belonged to masters who ruled
on the other slope of the Alps. Since the House of Savoy
(which has held it since about 1025) in i860 gave up the cradle
of its dynasty to France, Aosta is the last fragment that remains
to it of its former great Burguudian dominions on both sides of
Alps. Thus all the French-speaking districts in Italy are simply
relics of former Dauphine or Savoy supremacy on the ' wrong '
slope of the Alps.

More singularly there exist also a few German-speaking villages
within the boundaries of political Italy. N. of Domo d'Ossola,
at the Italian foot of the Simplon Pass, there runs up a long,
narrow valley, like a wedge thrust in between the Vallais (W.)
and Tessin (E.) — both Swiss. This glen is watered by the

o

•-*
z

o

THE ALPINE FOLK 65

Toce or Tosa river. Its highest portion bears the special name
of Val Formazza or Pommat valley, and there is settled (and
also at the neighbouring villages of Agaro and Salecchio) a
German-speaking colony, which came from the Vallais in the
thirteenth century. It still preserves its dialect, and is a curious
survival. In turn, before 1253 it sent an offshoot E. over the
mountain ridges to Bosco (Gurin), at the head of one of the side
glens of the Val Maggia, above Locarno : this odd little settle-
ment now numbers 266 souls, of whom 260 still speak Vallaisan
German. We have mentioned above the similar colonies at the
villages of Simplon and Gondo, a little above Domo, on the
Simplon road, but these have always remained Swiss, Bosco
becoming Swiss in 15 12, while the Val Formazza passed to the
House of Savoy in 1743. Below Domo, in the Tosa valley, is
Ornavasso (Urnasch), originally a Vallaisan colony, from Naters,
opposite Brieg, but now quite Italianised.

More important numerically are another set of Vallaisan
German-speaking colonies, which occupy the heads of some of
the Italian valleys S. and E. of the great snowy mass of Monte
Rosa. Such are the Val de Lys (Gressoney), the Val Sesia
(Alagna), and the A''al Anzasca (Macugnaga), together with
the isolated villages of Rima (head of the Val Sermenza) and of
Rimella (head of the Val Mastallone). The old Gothic four-
teenth-century church of the parish of Macugnaga is a striking
relic of this indefatigable colonisation from the Vallais.

Much farther to the E., on a high mountain shelf, is the
German-speaking settlement, N. of Vicenza, and N.W. of
Bassano, known as the Sette Comuni (the seven Communes
or parishes), viz. Asiago, Rotzo, Roana, GalUo, Foza, Enego,
and San Giacomo di Lusiana. Of the 25,000 inhabitants com-
paratively few (save at Rotzo and at Roana) still speak German,
which is rapidly disappearing, or has already disappeared, in the
other villages. It is a much-disputed point whether this popula-
tion represents the remains of an Ostrogothic or an Alamannian
occupation of the district, or whether the original inhabitants
were Swabians planted here to guard the Alpine passes ; they
name their tongue 'Cimbro.' In any case they have no con-
E

66 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

nection with the Vallais. In the Tredici Comuni (thirteen
Communes) N. of Verona, the former prevalence of German
is now said to have completely vanished, as it has in the
city of Trent itself, the lower portion of which was exclusively
German as late as 1483 ; so says Felix Faber (Schmid), a Domini-
can friar from Ulm, in his account of his pilgrimage to the Holy
Land, while adding that a few years previously the Germans in
Trent were not many in number.

The dialect spoken in Friuli is a distant relative of the Ladin
tongue spoken in the Engadine and the Groden valley, of which
we shall have something to say presently, and so we have another
interesting historical anomaly. In this district, too, there are
several scattered German-speaking villages, viz. those of Sappada
or Bladen (1322 souls), Sauris or die Zahre (760 souls), and of
Timau or Tischelwang (1220 souls), the highest village on the
S. slope of the Plocken Pass. In all three places an antiquated
Tyrolese-German (in Timau strongly influenced by the Friulan
dialect, while Sauris has the least impure German) is spoken,
and as all three are expressly mentioned as existing in the last
quarter of the thirteenth century, it would seem that they were
then (if not earlier) occupied by colonies from the Tyrol.

It is scarcely necessary in the case of the Swiss Confederation
to do more than state the fact that its Italian-speaking popula-
tion inhabits the canton of Tessin (Swiss in 1803), together with
the Grisons valleys of Bregaglia and Poschiavo (Swiss in 1803).
The dividing line in the Alpine region between the French-
speaking (W.) and the German-speaking (E.) folk runs S. from
Fribourg (two-thirds French-speaking) between Charmey (W.)
and Jaun (E.) in the Jogne valley, then between Chateau d'Oex
(W.) and Saanen or Gessenay (E.) in the upper Sarine or Saane
valley, and, after passing between the Ormonts valley (W.) and
Gsteig or Chatelet in the upperrhost branch of the Saane valley,
(E.), touches the summit of the Oldenhorn. The line of demar-
cation then runs E. to near the Wildstrubel, where it again bends
S. to cut across the Vallais a little E. of Sierre or Siders (that
town has a very slight majority of French-speaking folk), above
Sion or Sitten, and then to follow the ridge separating the

THE ALPINE FOLK ^7

Anniviers or Zinal valley (W.) from that of Turtmann (E.), and
so along the crests of the Weisshorn (leaving the Zermatt valley
on the E.) and the Dent Blanche to the Italian frontier, which
is reached near the Dent d'Herens and the Matterhorn.

More interesting in Switzerland is the question of the popula-
tion which speaks either the Romonsch or the Ladin dialects.
This now numbers 38,651 souls, of which 36,472 reside in the
Canton of the Grisons. Much nonsense has been written about
this ancient tongue, which is simply a Romance dialect that has
not kept pace with its elder sisters, French, Italian, etc. It is
not improbable that it represents the tongue of emigrants from
Lombardy pushed up into the mountains by stronger tribes
behind, and finally passing through the Engadine so as to reach
the Rhine valley, W. of Coire. The dialect, specially named
Romonsch, is spoken in the Vorder Rhine valley (or Biindner
Oberland), which runs from the Oberalp Pass past Disentis and
Ilanz to Coire : it is itself subdivided into two patois, which
prevail respectively in the two valleys mentioned as well as in
the lower reach of the Hinter Rhine valley. The tongue of the
region above Thusis, which comprises the valleys leading to the
Albula and Julier Passes respectively, is a transitional one. Once
across either pass, in the Engadine, or upper valley of the Inn,
we find that most of that well-known district uses the Ladin
dialect, which is by far the most living form of this ancient
tongue. An exception is formed by the Samnaun glen, in the
Lower Engadine, a valley with 357 inhabitants, which, no doubt
owing to its easier communications with the Tyrol than with
Switzerland, now speaks Tyrolese-German, though a hundred
years ago it was Ladin-speaking, and the place-names are still
Ladin. It is from the Lower Engadine that the Ladin language
has penetrated to the upper or Swiss portion of the Miinster
valley, which sends its waters to the upper Adige.

In this tolerably extensive Romance-speaking region of Eastern
Switzerland there are, however, a number of German-speaking
islets, which are all (save the Samnaun valley, mentioned above)
in the Romonsch district. The smallest and the most isolated
is the parish of Obersaxen (521 out of 652 souls), to the S.W.

6S THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

of Ilanz, and above the S. bank of the Vorder Rhine. A
similar colony, which existed from the fourteenth to the sixteenth
centuries, in the Calfeisen or upper Tamina glen, above Pfafers, has
left traces of its former existence in many Teutonic place-names.
The most extensive is that of the Rheinwald, or upper valley
of the Hinter Rhine (86 1 out of 899 souls), which in turn has
sent colonies N. over mountain ridges to the Vals (713 out
of 736 souls) and Safien (558 out of 585 souls) glens, both of
which are tributaries of the Vorder Rhine. It seems most
probable that all these inhabitants formed part of one of the
great thirteenth-century emigrations from the Vallais, and the
dialect to-day (as the present writer can testify from personal
experience) certainly resembles that now spoken in the Upper
Vallais. (Davos, too, was originally a thirteenth-century German-
speaking colony from the Vallais).

In fact, all the glens opening S. of the main Vorder Rhine
valley offer a most remarkable and intricate enlacement in point
of language as well as in point of religion. Going from W. to
E. we find that the Medels valley (through which the Middle
Rhine flows to join the Vorder Rhine, under Disentis) is
Romonsch-speaking and Romanist, as is the next inhabited
valley to the E. (for the Somvix glen is uninhabited save in
summer), Vrin, the S.W. and principal branch of the Lugnetz
valley which descends to the Vorder Rhine, at Ilanz. But the
S.E. branch, or Vals glen, of the Lugnetz valley is German-
speaking and Romanist, while the next glen to the E., that of
Safien, is also German-speaking, but in religion Protestant. Yet
in the next valley to the E., that of Domleschg, or the /ower
Hinter Rhine valley, through which passes the Albula railway
from Reichenau to Thusis, the confusion is complete, both as
to language and as to religion, so that one can never be quite
certain which tongue is spoken or which faith is professed in
any given village. The middle reach of the Hinter Rhine valley,
or the valley of Schams, is Romonsch-speaking and Protestant,
but the upper Hinter Rhine valley, or the Rheinwald, is German-
speaking and Protestant. Later on (Chapter xiii., Section 13),
when describing the Albula Group, we shall have occasion to

THE ALPINE FOLK 69

speak again about one of the side valleys of the Hinter Rhine,
that of Avers. The lower half of this valley, or Val Ferrera
(which is divided from the upper half by a series of fine, rose-
coloured, marble gorges, now pierced by a good carriage road),
has 162 inhabitants, out of whom 153 speak Romonsch, and
161 are Protestants, while in former days this bit belonged to
that of the Three Rsetian Leagues which was named the Grey
League. On the other hand, the upper half of the valley, or
the Avers proper, has 204 inhabitants, out of whom 194 speak
Vallaisan German, and 198 are Protestants, while in the old
times it belonged to the League of God's House. There can
be scarcely another Alpine glen which exhibits such strange
variations in its political history and language.

Let us now go on to Austria^ ' where, too, we find both
Ladin and German islets in the midst of a population of
another tongue. The Ladin portions (15,828 souls) lie in the
old bishopric of Brixen, between German-speaking and Lalian-
speaking districts, and include some of the glens well known
to wanderers among the Tyrolese Dolomites — those of Groden
(upper part), Gader, Fassa (the upper Avisio glen), and Ampezzo
(Cortina), though the two last named are more Italianised than
the other couple, while Buchenstein, or the upper Cordevole
valley, above Caprile, is, it is said, still less Ladin. Historical
students will regret the probable early extinction (save in
the Engadine and in the Groden and Gader valleys) of this
quaint Ladin dialect, which deserves to be preserved most
carefully as a monument historique. It is now generally believed
that the dialect spoken in Friuli is a kind of Ladin, and not a
rough Italian patois.

More curious are, perhaps, the fairly numerous German-
speaking islets in the parts of the old bishopric of Trent, or
the Italian-speaking S. Tyrol. To the N. of Trent there are
a few scattered villages in the Val di Non (Nonsberg), which
leads up along the Noce towards the Tonale Pass, and so to the
upper Oglio valley or Val Camonica : these German-speaking
hamlets, Unsere Hebe Frau im Walde or Senale (309 out of 310
souls), St. Felix or San Felice (317 out of 337 souls), Laurein or

70 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Lauregno (513 out of 516 souls), and Proveis or Proves (497
out of 516 souls), are situated amidst an Italian-speaking folk
(though not far from the German-speaking populations to the
N.) and on the most northerly slopes of the Val di Non.

E. of Trent and N.E. of Pergine (on the Val Sugana railway)
lies the Fersen or Fersina valley (Val dei Mocheni), in which
there are a number of German-speaking villages in the midst of
an Italian-speaking population — Gereut or Frassilongo, Eichleit
or Roveda, St. Franziskus or San Francesco, St. Felix or San
Felice, and Palu or Palai — of 181 9 inhabitants 1537 speak
German, Palu boasting indeed of 423 German-speaking dwellers
out of a population of 432. The two hamlets bearing saints'
names had their origin in the twelfth century as a colony of
miners, but the others are said to be of Lombard or Prankish
descent. To the S. of the Fersen valley, and so to the S.E.
of Trent, is the village of Lusarn or Luserna, with 675 German-
speaking inhabitants out of a total of 699. It is said to be a
thirteenth century colony established here by the prince-bishop of
Trent, like its neighbour San Sebastiano, but the latter, a village
in the parish of Folgareit or Folgaria, seems now officially to
have only two German-speaking inhabitants, though some un-
official works put the number at 300.

Almost all the Slavonic-speaking inhabitants in the Alps proper
are to be found in the Austrian province of Carniola (a few only
in Carinthia). Here there were, till recently, several German-
speaking islands, for instance, Deutschruth and Zarz, both dating
back to the thirteenth century, but it is said that now they have
been all but completely Slavonicised, though the older inhabitants
of some villages E. of Zarz still speak German. The chief
German-speaking settlement in Carniola, Gottschee, lies outside
the limits of the Alps.

3. We have now studied the Alpine folk so far as regards
their political situation and the mother-tongues which they
speak. Something must now be said as to their religion.

It need hardly be said that before the Reformation of the

THE ALPINE FOLK 71

sixteenth century they were all Romanists, with one small
exception, the Vaudois or Waldensians, who lay claim to have
been 'Reformers before the Reformation.' These, however,
were not very numerous, and were confined to some Alpine glens
in the upper Durance valley, in Dauphine, on the French side of
the Alps, as well as to certain others, on the E. or Piedmontese
slope, such as the Val Pellice and the Val Germanasca, both
S.W. of Turin.

After the Reformation the Waldensians were still the only
Protestants in the French and Italian Alps, and, having
practically become Calvinists of the Geneva type, are true
' Protestants.' On the French slope of the Alps there were,
till recently, small congregations in the Freissinieres glen of
the upper Durance valley, and in the Arvieux branch of the
Guil glen, a tributary of the upper Durance valley : this region
was known as the ' Pays de Neff,' from Felix Neff, a young
Genevese Protestant pastor who devoted part of his short life
(1798-1829) to working (1823-9) among its inhabitants. On
the Italian slope the number of the Waldensians does not now
exceed 13,000. They are confined to the Val Pellice and its
side glens of Angrogna and Rora, and to the part of the Val
Germanasca above Perrero, where it splits into the glens of
Prali, of Rodoretto, and of Massel. But the rest of the French
Alps, as also those of Austria and Bavaria, is inhabited by a
Romanist population. As regards Switzerland, most of that part
of its territory (whatever language its dwellers speak) which
lies on the S. slope of the Alps is occupied by an exclusively
Romanist population, so the villages of Simpeln and Gondo,
practically the whole Canton of Tessin, and the Grisons valleys
of Mesocco and Calanca, while in Poschiavo the Protestants
number about one-fifth of the population, though in the
Miinster valley they form nearly half (681 to 1505). The Val
Bregaglia, however, is five-sixths Protestant. When we look
at the N. side of the Swiss Alps, we notice at once that of the
three great valleys which are carved out at the base of that
slope, two are all but exclusively Romanist, those of the upper
Rhone or the Vallais, and of the upper Vorder Rhine or the

72 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Biindner Oberland (the lower valley is three-fourths Romanist),

while in the third, the upper Inn valley or Engadine, only rather

more than one-third are of that faith, Tarasp (long a Habsburg

possession) and the Samnaun glen being the only predominantly

Romanist spots. We noticed above the curious interlacing of

religion and language as to the main valley of the Hinter Rhine.

The Romanists number three-fourths of the population in the

valleys above Thusis, leading to the Albula and the Julier

Passes, while they are, of course, predominant in 'Primitive

Switzerland,' or the Cantons of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and

Lucerne, though holding only one-fourth of the folk of Glarus. On

the other hand, the Protestants are vastly superior in numbers in

the valleys N. of the great snowy chain of the Bernese Oberland,

and claim the allegiance of three-fourths of the population in

the valleys round Davos. In the older books of travel one

used to read of the superiority in many points of the Protestant

mountain Cantons over those which have clung to the older

faith. But, if we put aside the Canton of Tessin, which is really

a bit of Italy that belongs to Switzerland for purely historical

reasons, a careful study will show that so far as regards

natural advantages of soil, etc., the Romanist part of the region

is far less favoured than is the Protestant portion. Compare,

for instance, the swampy and barren Vallais, and the deep-cut

upper Biindner Oberland, or the narrow trench of Uri, with

the smiling valleys of the Bernese Oberland. The difference

in prosperity is far from being wholly due to differences of

religion.

This seems to be the proper place wherein to insert a few
remarks as to the very important part played by the Church not
merely in the conversion, but in the civilising, of the Alpine
lands. This was not merely because some of the principal
bishops (such as Embrun, Tarentaise, Sion, Coire, Lausanne,
Trent, Brixen, Salzburg) in these regions possessed secular as
well as spiritual powers. That union of jurisdictions in the
hands of one and the same lord often did not produce good
results, save on special occasions. We refer rather to the
work of the great monasteries, whose serfs, as in England,

THE ALPINE FOLK 73

occupied a privileged position by comparison with those of
temporal lords, and who were able to secure some continuity
in the maintaining of the improvements they had carried out
in matters agrarian as well as educational and social. Such are
the ancient Benedictine houses of Novalesa (above Susa and on
the S. slope of the Mont Cenis), St Michel de la Cluse (between
Susa and Turin) — the mother house of Chamonix, the most
Alpine of all monasteries — Disentis (founded by a disciple of
Columban) in the Vorder Rhine valley, Miinster, above the
upper Adige valley, St. Gall, Einsiedeln, Engelberg, Pfafers ; or
the Austin Canons of St. Maurice, in the Vallais, and of Inter-
laken, in the Bernese Oberland, or the Cistercians of Abondance,
S. of the Lake of Geneva. Nor should we forget the secular
canons of Lucerne (the house was Benedictine from its founda-
tion in the eighth century till 1455), or the powerful Tyrolese
houses of Marienberg (Benedictine), at the head of the upper
valley of the Adige or Vintschgau, and of Wilten (Premonstra-
tensian Canons Regular), close to Innsbruck, and of Innichen
(first Benedictine, from the twelfth century secular canons), at the
head- waters of the Drave, and formerly an outpost of Christianity
towards the heathen Slaves, or the Styrian house of Admont
(Benedictine) in the Enns valley. Some of these religious houses
have done their appointed work, while others still continue their
labours, though in a more limited sphere than of old. But all
must rejoice that the Austin Canons still ofifer shelter to passers-
by, whether workmen or travellers for pleasure, on the Great
St. Bernard, and the Simplon. Formerly they served also
the Little St. Bernard, where, since about 1750, the Hospice is
under the control of the military and religious knightly order of
SS. JSIaurice and Lazarus. The Capuchins were in charge of
the Hospice on the St. Gotthard during the eighteenth century.

In terminating this sketch of some of the main general
characteristics of the Alpine folk let us mention as a curiosity
the fact that the highest permanently inhabited village in the
Alps, as well as in Switzerland, is Juf(6998 ft.), in the Avers
valley (Grisons), not very far from the Maloja Pass. The
highest village in Italy is Trepalle (6788 ft.), between Livigno

74 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

and Bormio, near the head of the Valtelline; the highest in
the French Alps is L'Ecot (6713 ft.), at the very head of the
Arc valley or Maurienne, in Savoy, or perhaps that of St. Veran,
W. of Monte Viso, in a side glen of the Guil, a tributary of the
upper Durance valley, of which the highest houses are at a
height of 6726 ft., though the rest of the hamlet is lower; while
the highest in Austria or the Tyrol is Ober Gurgl (6322 ft.) in
the Oetzthal district, the neighbouring hamlet of Vent or Fend
being 62 11 ft.

THE POINTE DES ECRINS AND THE PIC COOLIDGE (DAUPHIXE ALPS)
FROM IHK CHARDOX GLACIER

CHAPTER VII

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS

THE political history of the Alps properly takes its start, as
we indicated in the preceding chapter, with the establish-
ment of political relations between the Romans and the Alpine
folk. But these relations were terribly one-sided, for they
consisted in the more or less complete subjugation of the
Alpine tribes to the hard yoke of the Romans. If it was not
in every case compulsory annexation, it certainly amounted, on
the part of the peoples of the Alps, to the abandonment of
their former freedom and isolation in favour of the encroaching
Romans. Looked at from the point of view of the dwellers
among the fastnesses of the Alps, the Roman rule, at any rate in
some cases, pressed hardly only from time to time, when an
attempt was made to get rid of even a nominal subjection. In
the eyes of the Romans, however, such risings were simply the
restless strivings of barbarians, who, if suffered to stretch their
chain of captivity to its full extent, were yet not allowed to
overpass certain strictly defined limits on pain of severe chastise-
ment. The Romans, not unnaturally, entertained a strong
objection to running the risk of having their delicate and
refined civilisation injured or threatened by the rude onslaughts
of these wild men of the hills. Yet the latter had generally
undergone very hard experiences, and did not appreciate the
part assigned to them of supplying the wants of their conquerors,
while they themselves were kept at a respectful distance, if
need were, by force of arms. Probably, as in the case of any
contact between civilised and uncivilised nations, both sides
suffered many disagreeables. But it must always be remembered

75

^6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

that, most unfortunately, we have only accounts of the con-
flict written by the conquerors, who, naturally, bring into
prominence their own brave deeds rather than those of their
dreaded foes. Of course, it must have been very unpleasant
for the Romans to have before their eyes the fear of a possible
invasion of their fair domains in sunny Italy by the Alpine
tribes, speaking a totally different tongue, fascinated by the
sight of the good things denied them, and eager to grasp what
they could at the point of the spear.

But the Alpine folk were numerous and full of a daring
courage, which can only be explained by ignorance of the power
of their future conquerors. It was in the time of the Republic
that the Gauls in what is now Lombardy and Venetia were
overcome. But the conquest of the tribes on the N. slope of
the Alps was a very long and wearisome process. Speaking
very roughly, these people were reduced to the position of
Roman allies, or subjects, in the period that extends from
B.C. 25 to B.C. 8 or 6. In the former of the two last-named
years the Arch of Triumph at Susa was set up, with the names
(still plainly visible) of fourteen conquered Alpine tribes, while
at the second date given there was erected at Turbie, above
the blue waters of the Mediterranean, a Tower, now in ruins,
though the names of the forty-five Alpine tribes thereon inscribed
have been luckily preserved to us by Pliny. Oddly enough, how-
ever, but six names are common to the two inscriptions. Matters
could now be better organised, and a ring of provinces was formed
on the N. slope of the Alps to act as a sort of cushion, whereon
the attacks of the wilder warriors might be made without any
damage save to themselves. The danger to the Romans was
thus pushed farther away, behind the lofty chain of the
Alps, which, so they hoped, would have formed an impassable
barrier. Now, the Romans of the Empire might go safely
to sleep, and care not which general assumed the imperial
purple.

It is hard to fix the exact limits of the Roman dominion in
the Alps, though we may safely assert that under Augustus (died
A.D. 14) the whole of both slopes of the Alps, Western, Central,

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 77

and Eastern, were in the hands of the Emperor, directly or
indirectly.

But as the central power grew weaker and weaker so did its
hold on the distant provinces across the Alps relax slowly and
surely, while, in their turn, some of the later Emperors ruled
in the provinces apart from Rome. New hordes of bar-
barians appeared on the scene. Rome was sacked successively
by Visigoths under Alaric (a.d. 410) and by Vandals under
Geiseric (455). The division of the Empire in 395 was
followed in 476 by its nominal reunion, with Odoacer as
imperial viceroy in Italy. But his rule broke down in 493
before the invasion (489) of the Ostrogoths under Theo-
doric, though barely seventy years later these had to make way
for the Lombards (568). Meanwhile, on the other side of the
Alps the tribes brought into subjection partly recovered their
liberty of action, being no longer controlled by a strong arm
stretched over them from Rome, while in part they were pushed
on by the ever-advancing masses of hitherto dimly heard-of
barbarians. Thus the old provincial system was replaced by
the rule of a set of vigorous tribes which pressed into the glens
on the N. slope of the Alpine chain, and were ready enough,
had fortune favoured them, to imitate the example of their
luckier comrades who had actually entered Italy and gained
the coveted prize, So we find that while the Burgundians
hovered over the western portion of the Alps, the Alamanni
held the central bit of the chain, and the Baioarii occupied the
eastern third — of course, all these tribes keeping on the N.
slope.

All were, however, to give way and bow their necks to the
rule of a distant yet increasingly powerful folk, the Franks, who
slowly but steadily made their way towards the Alps and so
to Italy and Rome. Hardly had Clovis, the founder of the
Merwing dynasty, put the final stroke (486) to the last surviving
fragment of Roman rule, under Syagrius, in north-western Gaul,
than he put the Alamanni to rout (496). This crowning victory
(for the conversion of the Franks to orthodox Christianity
soonjj after secured their ultimate supremacy) was followed

78 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

up by his successors, who in 532 overcame the Burgundians,
and in 536 obtained from the Alamanni their last stronghold
in Rsetia, as well as from the Ostrogoths their possessions in
Provence. In 575, let us not forget the event, the Franks
wrested the valley of Aosta (as well as Susa) from the Lombards,
and henceforth this valley, though lying S. of the Alps, followed,
with very slight breaks, the fortunes of masters who ruled on the
N. slope of the great chain.

But the fresh vigour of the Merwings soon died away, so that
they did not themselves pluck the coveted fruit from the trees,
simply preparing the way for the mightier Carolingians (751).
Pippin, the founder of that dynasty, found enough to occupy
his attention in Aquitania and towards the Pyrenees. It was
his son, Charles the Great, who during his glorious reign {768-
814) not merely carried out his father's schemes, but added
to them in a fashion that would probably have startled Pippin.
His conquest of the Lombards (774), after forcing his way over
the Alps, meant not merely supremacy in Italy, but, what to
us here is even more important, the possession of the entire
S. slope of the Alps. He already held on the N. slope the W.
or Burgundian, as well as the Central or Alamannian heritage.
Hence, when in 788 he added the lands of the Baioarii to his
own realm, and this meant the annexation of what represents
modern Tyrol and Carinthia, Charles thus obtained the one
bit of the N. slope of the Alps lacking to him. Once more
the whole of the Alpine chain was under the rule of a
single monarch, and therefore the historian of the Alps has a
special feeling of joy when he recalls the coronation of Charles
the Great at Rome on Christmas Day, 800, as the second
Augustus, and Emperor of the Romans. Never again was the
whole of the great mountain chain of which w^e are studying the
history to be held by one and the same man. But, as we
shall see, it was the third member of the great triumvirate that
at long intervals have moulded the history of Europe more
than any other human beings, even Napoleon himself, who
came very near success in his attempt to rival, or surpass, the
deeds of his two great predecessors.

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 79

The successor of Charles the Great was his son Louis the
Pious, but he had hardly assumed the burden of Empire
(crowned at Rome in 810) when he began to partition it among
his sons (817). It was only, however, after his death (840) that
a partition was definitively made by the famous Treaty of Verdun
(843), which, roughly speaking, laid the foundations of modern
Europe. We need not trouble ourselves here with the share
of the youngest brother, Charles the Bald, as it did not touch
any part of the Alpine chain ; the frontier of his kingdom, which
nearly represented the France of later times, was drawn to the
W. of the Rhone and the Saone. The second brother, Louis
the Germanic, obtained what may be called an elementary form
of later Germany, so that his domains took in that part of modern
Switzerland which is E. of the Aar, as well as Tyrol, Carinthia,
and Carniola. In short, he held the whole of the German-
speaking portion of the Alps. The eldest brother, Lothair, took
the title of Emperor (together with Italy, thus ruling over
the S. slope of the Alps), and also a long strip of territory which
stretched from the mouth of the Rhine to that of the Rhone, this
great Middle Kingdom being named by the chroniclers the
' regnum Lotharii ' (the ' kingdom of Lothair '), or ' Lotharingia.'
Here we have no concern with the more northerly half, a bit of
which later monopolised the name of Lorraine. Our interest
is limited to the southern half, which took in what is now W.
Switzerland, Savoy, Dauphine, and Provence, the whole forming
a Romance-speaking region as contrasted with the German-
speaking Alpine dominions of Louis the Germanic. On Lothair
i.'s death (855) this S'. half was given over to his youngest
son, Charles, the N. half going to his second son, Lothair 11.,
while Louis, the eldest of the three brothers, became
Emperor and ruler of Italy. But on Charles's death (863) that
part of his heritage which lay to the E. of the Rhone wxnt to
his eldest brother, Louis, and was held together with Italy,
while after Lothair 11. 's death (869) the N. half went to Louis
the Germanic. Henceforward the history of these two halves of
Lotharingia, or the Middle Kingdom (which thus existed only
from 843 to 855), is wholly distinct. When Lothair i.'s line

8o THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

became extinct in 875, on the death of Louis, its domains (with
the imperial dignity and Italy) passed to Charles the Bald, who
ruled over them as w^ell as over his original share (roughly
speaking, later France).

Two events, not far removed in point of time, the deaths of
Charles the Bald (877) and that of Charles the Fat (888— he
held the German-speaking portion of the Alps, as well as Italy),
finally broke up the huge Empire of Charles the Great into four
great fragments, of which three only (we exclude the West
Frankish kingdom, which did not touch the Alps) concern us
in this sketch of the history of the Alps. Germany (or the
Eastern Frankish kingdom) henceforward had a separate life of its
own, though soon, in its Alpine portions, a crowd of great feudal
nobles secured all practical power. Italy passed through the hands
of a rapid succession of rulers, till there too many feudal lords
each secured to himself a portion of the realm. Finally the S.
half of the Middle Kingdom broke up into two portions. In
879 Count Boso of Vienne was chosen king by his fellow-nobles,
his rule extending over all what is now modern Savoy (save that
bit which lies S. of the Lake of Geneva and N. of the
upper Isere valley or the Tarentaise), Dauphine, and Provence.
This kingdom is sometimes called 'Cisjurane Burgundy,' but
it took in no part of the Jura, and is more accurately named the
'kingdom of Provence' : it lasted only till about 933, when its
then ruler, Count Hugh of Aries, king of Italy, made it over to
the king of the more northerly half of ' Burgundy.' The last-
named kingdom took its origin in 888, after the death of
Charles the Fat, the first king being Rudolf, a Burgundian
count. This more northerly kingdom (which is generally named
' Transjurane Burgundy ') comprised all W. Switzerland, with
that part of Savoy between the Lake of Geneva and the upper
valley of the Isere and the valley of Aosta (held 880-888 by
Boso). Its second king, Rudolf 11,, it was who got from Count
Hugh the kingdom of Provence at the nominal price of the
crown of Italy. Thus about 933 the two Burgundian kingdoms
were reunited after having been divided since 879. This united
kingdom (which included the whole of the N. slope of the

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 8i

Western Alps, save the Vallais, but with the addition of the
valley of Aosta on the S. slope) lasted till 1032, when, by a
treaty made, in 1027, with the last king, Rudolf in. (died 1032),
it passed to Conrad 11., the Emperor and German king who was
crowned in 1033 at Payerne. It is, however, only early in the
thirteenth century that this kingdom of Burgundy officially takes
the name, by which it is usually known, of the kingdom of
Aries. It practically came to an end in 1378, when the Emperor
Charles iv. (who had been crowned king of Aries at Aries in
1365) conferred the office of 'Imperial Vicar' within the whole
of the kingdom of Aries on the young Dauphin, eldest son of
Charles v., king of France. In 1193 the Emperor Henry vi.
(who had no real authority over it) conferred on Richard i. of
England (in return for his homage for England) the kingdom of
Provence 'up to the Alps,' though this gift remained a mere
donation on paper, meant to secure Richard to the service of
the Emperor.

But the event of 1378, simply marked a fait accompli. Long
before many feudal lords had practically got to themselves
all real power in all parts of the Alpine region. Hence, if the
date 888 marks the beginning of the modern states and divisions
of Europe, in the Alpine regions the eleventh and twelfth
centuries are far more important. It is at that time that there
emerge gradually from the crowd of those who were struggling
for power in that region the three famiUes which were ultimately
to prevail. It is thus best for us to bring this general sketch
of the political history of the Alps to an end about 1033.
Henceforward it will be clearer to trace out the separate political
history of the three great divisions of the Alps. In the Western
Alps the long struggle between the Counts of Savoy, of Albon
(later Dauphins of the Viennois), and of Provence ended in the
supremacy of France on the W. slope and of Savoy on the
E. slope. In the Central Alps (which for our purposes include
the Upper Vallais) the struggle lay between the elements of the
future Swiss Confederation and the holder for the time of the
Milanese. Finally, in the Eastern Alps we have to trace out
the gradual absorption of many minor states and principalities

F

82 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

by the powerful House of Habsburg. Thus, roughly speaking,
France, the Swiss Confederation, and Austria struggled for long
with the successive owners of Northern Italy. That struggle
ended, at least for the present, in 1859-1866; in i860 the House
of Savoy gave up Nice and Savoy (its last possessions on the
W. slope) to France, while in 1859 and 1866 the dynasty of
Savoy, now aiming at ruling United Italy, obtained respectively
Lombardy and Venetia. Thus, nowadays, France, the Swiss
Confederation, and Austria share the W. or N. slope of the
Alps (Bavaria holds but a very small bit), while Italy rules the
whole of the S. slope, save in the case of certain small
districts mentioned in the preceding chapter.

But before entering upon the special political history of each
of the three main divisions of the Alps we must make some
mention of two great facts, each of which concerns the history of
the Alpine chain as a whole — the tenth century incursions of the
Saracens of La Garde Freinet, and the rule (181 0-15) of Napoleon.

In 887 or 888, just as the Empire of Charles the Great was
breaking up, some shipwrecked Spanish Saracen pirates settled
themselves in an eagle's nest, at La Garde Freinet, built on the
ridge of the thickly wooded Montagnes des Maures, above and to
the S.W. of Frejus, on the coast of Provence. That spot remained
their headquarters till, in 975, Count William of Provence and
Ardoin, Marquess of Turin, extirpated these pests. But in the
course of those ninety years these Saracens did a vast deal of
harm in many parts of the Alps, and immensely increased the
anarchy which there prevailed after the break-up of the
Carolingian Empire. About 906 they crossed the Col de
Tenda and sacked the monastery of Pedona, at the modern
Borgo San Dalmazzo, near Cuneo, while very soon after they
pushed again across the Alps, probably by the Mont Cenis, and
destroyed the great abbey of Novalesa, in the Dora Riparia
valley, W. of Turin. In 916 they sacked Embrun, and its
neighbourhood in the upper Durance valley. Holding thus the
two great passes of the Western Alps, the Mont Genevre and

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 83

the Mont Cenis, they established a reign of terror in that part
of the Alps. In 921 and again in 923 we are expressly told
that they massacred bands of peaceful English pilgrims on their
way to Rome. In 929 we hear that they held the passes of
the Alps, while in 936 they ravaged the diocese of Coire in
Rjetia. In 940 they burnt and sacked the great abbey of St.
Maurice in the Vallais, and in 942 made a treaty with Hugh,
king of Italy, by which they were formally given possession of all
the Alps (and hence of the passes over them) between Germany
and Italy. Grenoble and its neighbourhood had been occupied
already a long time in 954, in which year too they attacked
certain Alpine pastures belonging to the monastery of St. Gall,
while in 956 the Emperor Otto i. applied for help against them
to the Caliph of Cordova. In fact, it was felt that some serious
attempt must be made to put a stop to the depredations of these
robbers. The climax came when in 973 Majolus, the abbat of
Cluny, was captured by them at Orsieres, on his way from
Rome over the Great St. Bernard. Detailed accounts of his
sufferings have been preserved to us, and he was only liberated
by the payment of a huge ransom that his monks had great
trouble in collecting. Hence in 975 the two nobles of whom
we have made mention above took La Garde Freinet by storm,
and put every man to the sword. In the fifteenth century
breviary of the church of Gap grateful mention is made of this
glorious feat of arms, in commemoration of which Count William
gave half the town of Gap to God and Our Lady.

To us here these Saracen inroads are important because two
of the chief dynasties in the Western Alps (the Counts of Albon,
later the Dauphins of the Viennois, and the Counts of Provence)
came into prominence through the part they took in repelling
these bandits.

Nor were these Saracens the only bandits who made the Alps
unsafe in the tenth century, for we often hear of incursions by
parties of Magyars or Hungarians, in particular of a violent
attack on the monastery of St. Gall in 926, and of another raid
across the Alps in 954.

The second point relating to the Alps as a whole which may

84 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

best find a place here, before we enter on the special consideration
of the various divisions of the great chain, is the way in which
Napoleon very nearly rivalled Charles the Great in his political
domination of the Alpine region. It is no doubt true that the
mediaeval Emperors, after the kingdom of Burgundy fell back to
them in 1032, till the rise of the Swiss Confederation, and of
that of the House of Savoy, as well as till the steady eastward
progress of the French kingdom, exercised a more or less
shadowy suzerainty, rather than sovereignty, over the whole
Alpine region. But Napoleon's rule from about iSioto 1814
was far more real, though it did not take in quite all the part of
Europe which interests us. As Emperor of the French (since
1804) he held as heir of the Republic or as conqueror
(besides Dauphine and Provence) Savoy and the county of
Nice (acquired 1792), Geneva and its neighbourhood (1798),
Piedmont (1802), Liguria (1805), and the lUyrian Provinces,
i.e. part of Carinthia and all Carniola (1809), and the Vallais
(annexed in 18 10). As king of Italy (1805) he ruled over
Lombardy, besides the Valtelline and the county of Bormio
(1797), and Venetia (got in two bits, in 1797 and in 1805), as
well as the Italian-speaking part of the Tyrol (got in 1809 from
Bavaria). As a powerful and well-nigh irresistible ' friend ' he
controlled the Swiss Confederation since the Act of Mediation
(1803), while by means of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806)
he was master of the Vorarlberg, Salzburg, and the German-
speaking part of the Tyrol, through Bavaria, to which these
districts had been made over in 1809. It would thus appear
that the only Alpine countries which Napoleon did not at that time
or ever reign over were Styria and a part of Carinthia, which re-
mained in the hands of Austria. As regards those relatively
small portions of the Alps, Napoleon's dominions were smaller
than those of Charles the Great or of the Romans. But most
probably his rule was far more effective than that of his pre-
decessors in rougher and less civilised ages. History often
repeats itself, but it may be doubted whether this adage will
hold true of the rule of a single state or man over the entire
chain of the Alps, But what an ideal and much-to-be-envied

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 85

position it would be, to have in one's own hands all the keys
which opened the way to Italy ! It would be sufficient to turn
the head of the most prudent ruler of the sedatest of states.

I. THE WESTERN ALPS
(From the Col de Tenda to the Simplon)

The struggle in this portion of the Alps lay ultimately be-
tween France on the one side, and the House of Savoy on the
other. But it was only at a comparatively late date that these
two foes stood face to face, for their career in each case had
started from small beginnings, and meant the absorption of many
smaller rulers.

It was in the eleventh century, just about the time when the
kingdom of Burgundy was ending (1032) as a separate state, that
three feudal families (Savoy, Dauphine, and Provence) among
those which held sway in the region between the Rhone (below
Lyons) and the Alps emerged from the ruck, and stood forth
to do battle for supremacy in that part of the Alpine region.
They all rose on the ruins of the kingdom of Burgundy.

(i) The first is that of the future House of Savoy. In 1025
Humbert with the White Hands is mentioned as Count of Aosta,
and in 1036 as Count of the Maurienne (or the valley of the Arc,
leading to the Mont Cenis), while in 1034 he perhaps received
the Chablais from Conrad 11., whom he had helped to secure the
crown of Burgundy. His son acquired by marriage {c. 1046) the
marquessate of Turin, thus firmly planting his house on the
other side of the Alps. The district originally bearing the title-
name of Savoy (that between Aix les Bains, Chambery, and
Montmelian) was inherited from a cadet branch about 1050,
while about 1082 the Archbishop of the Tarentaise (or the upper
valley of the Isere), who in 996 had received from the last king

86 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

of Transjurane Burgundy the temporal jurisdiction of that region,
became a vassal of the rapidly rising House of Savoy. Further,
through the position of the head of the family as protector of the
great abbey of St. Maurice, it practically ruled the Lower Vallais,
though the Bishop of Sion retained the temporal jurisdiction which
he had received in 999 from the last of the kings of Transjurane
Burgundy. In short, this house had to all intents and purposes
inherited the domains of Rudolf iii. of Transjurane Burgundy,
so far as regards the central portion of his kingdom. Hence in
1 1 25 we find its head assuming the title of 'Count of Savoy' in
the foundation charter of the abbey of Hautecombe, the future
burying-place of his race. In the thirteenth century the family
whose rise we are tracing acquired (12 16) the overlordship of
Saluzzo (including the upper Po and Varaita valleys), purchased
its long-time capital Chambery (1232) from its local lord, con-
quered (1240- 1 268) a great part of the district of Vaud and the
Lower Vallais, and obtained (1243-6) from the abbat of Pinerolo
that town with the Chisone valley. The erection of Aosta and
the Chablais (just S. of the Lake of Geneva) into a duchy (1238),
and the elevation of the head of the house to the dignity of
Prince of the Empire (13 10), mark the further advance of the
House of Savoy, which in 131 3 got hold of Ivrea, the link
between its ancient possessions of Aosta and of Turin, as well
as in 1 3 13 of the Canavese or the upper Oreo valley. Finally,
in 1356, Amadeus, the ' Green Count,' was made by the Emperor
Charles iv. his Vicar or representative within the domains of
the House of Savoy, which thus, for all practical purposes,
became independent of the Empire.

2. Let us turn now to the second of the three great feudal
families we mentioned above, that of the Dmiphins of the
VieiiJiois. It is about 1034 that we first hear of a Count of
Albon (between Vienna and Valence, in the valley of the
Rhone). This dynasty seems to have come to the front and
established its power by virtue of the active part it played in re-
pelling the invasions of the Saracens in the tenth century, several

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THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 87

of its members earlier than Count Guy having been bishops
of Grenoble. Its original domains lay in the Graisivaudan
valley (that is the bit of the Isere valley between Montmelian and
Grenoble) and in the Champsaur (the upper Drac valley). But
as early as 1053 it had extended its rule to the Brian^onnais,
at the head- waters of the Durance. This region (which takes
its name from the little Roman town of Briangon) included,
however, much more than the upper Durance valley, and its
side glens, those of the Clairee, the Guisane, the Vallouise,
and the Queyras (or the Guil valley). From Briangon the
pass of the Mont Genevre, one of the great historical passes of
the Alps, leads over to the valley of the Dora Riparia (Cesanne,
Oulx, Bardonneche, near the Mont Cenis Tunnel, Exilles,
Salbertrand); while from Cesanne at its E. foot the Col de
Sestrieres gives access past Pragelas and Fenestrelles to Pinerolo
by the Chisone valley, of which the upper portion (above Perosa)
belonged to the Briangonnais : further, from the head of the Guil
valley several passes (e.g. the Col de I'Agnel and the Col de
Vallante) lead over to the head of the Varaita valley (just S.
of Monte Viso) wherein are Chateau Dauphin, Castelponte,
and Bellino, all likewise included in the Briangonnais. These
minute topographical details may be pardoned because they
will enable us better to understand the part played by the
Dauphine in the great struggle for the Western Alps. Thus
the future Dauphins (this name will be explained below)
had many of the passes, E. slope as well as W. slope, over the
Alps, in their own hands. Hence the rulers of the Briangonnais
held wide dominions on the other side of the Alps, just like
their neighbours of Savoy, who reigned immediately to the N.,
so that the two houses were bound sooner or later to come into
conflict. Before that time arrived, however, the Dauphins had
acquired much territory at the expense of their neighbours (the
heirs of the Counts of Forcalquier) on the S., the Counts of
Provence, of whom we shall speak presently.

In 1232 the Dauphins acquired by purchase (as the ultimate
result of a lucky marriage with the heiress in 1202) the
Embrunais (or middle reach of the upper Durance valley, and

88 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

so just S. of the Briangonnais) and the Gapengais (between the
Durance and the Drac valleys). This extensive addition (con-
firmed by the Emperor Frederick ii. in 1 247) enabled the Dauphins
to join, as it were, their domains in the Champsaur and around
Grenoble with those in the Brianconnais, the great snow-clad mass
of the Pelvoux rising between these hitherto isolated possessions.
The heir and successor of the Dauphin who made this lucky
purchase himself added to the family estates by marrying (1241)
the heiress (1268) of the Faucigny (the Arve valley, wherein is
Chamonix), but, as we shall see later, this lordship was lost
to the House of Savoy in 1355. Of the other transfers from
Provence to Dauphine (the process went on till 1503) we need
only mention the annexation, in 1424, in virtue of the will of
the last count (d. 1419), of the counties of Die and Valence.
But by that time the Dauphine had ceased to be an indepen-
dent state, for, as is well known, it was sold by Humbert, the
last Dauphin, in 1349, to Charles (later Charles v.), grandson
of the king of France. Thus France for the first time touched
the Alps. In 1378, as we noted towards the beginning of this
chapter, the Emperor Charles iv. named the then holder of
the Dauphine (the eldest son of King Charles v.) Imperial
Vicar wnthin the Dauphine and Provence, thus practically
putting an end to the Imperial supremacy in these regions.

Here we may intercalate a few remarks about the origin of
the title ' Dauphin ' as there has been much confusion on the
subject. The name ' Delphinus ' (borne as a Christian name
by a fourth century Bishop of Bordeaux, by a seventh century
Bishop of Lyons, and with a feminine termination, by a four-
teenth century female saint) appears first in mo as a sort
of second Christian name of Guy iv., both during the lifetime
of his father and afterwards, and then in 1151 of his son and
successor also. The latter's heiress, Beatrice (d. 1228 — she was
the last of the first race), gave (1193) to her son Andrew
(d. 1237) the second name of ' Delphinus,' in order to show his
descent. His son, Guy vi. (d. 1270), also bears (1238) this
second name (though generally in the genitive case), which at
home is treated as a patronymic, though abroad it is tending

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 89

to be considered a title. The same is the case under Guy's
son, John, whose proper title is always ' Count of Vienne and
Albon.' But with John the second race ended, and on his
death (1282) his realms passed to his sister, Anne, who had
married Humbert, lord of La Tour du Pin. Humbert it was
who finally adopted ' Delphinus ' as a title, even in the very
year of his accession, and soon the change is complete. In
1284 his wife is called 'Delphina' and in 1285 his realms
' Delphinatus.' It should be noticed, however, that Humbert
generally adds to the title 'Dauphin' the words 'Comte de
Vienne et d'Albon,' only rarely using the form 'Delphinus
Viennensis.' In any case ' Dauphin ' is a title, and so, if we
wish to be accurate, we should speak of the ' Dauphins of the
Viennois,' as long as they continued to be an independent
dynasty {i.e. till 1349). In the closely related family of the
Counts of Auvergne the name ' Dauphin ' has a similar history,
the <dates being remarkably parallel. In 11 96 it is a Christian
name, about 1250 a patronymic, and in 1281 a title. This
house, too, is properly named ' Dauphins of Auvergne ' till its
extinction in the seventeenth century. It is quite certain that
the name or title of ' Dauphin ' was not borrowed from the
arms borne by these families, for oddly enough it was probably
in the first years of the thirteenth century that the three houses
(all kinsmen) of Dauphine, Auvergne, and Forez (the last named
never bore the title of ' Dauphin,' but that of Count) altered
their former arms, and placed on them the dolphin, which thus
may be regarded as a case of ' canting arms.'

3. Like their neighbours, the Counts of Albon, the Counts of
Provence seem to have established their power after the defeat in
975 of the Saracens by Count William. That event, at any rate,
vastly increased their authority, for the first count we hear of,
Boso, William's father, was simply the Count of Aries. Later they
sometimes name themselves ' Marquises ' of Provence, as that
was a border or ' march ' land towards Italy. To us this dynasty
is important only as regards the Alpine lands it held. We have

90 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

seen above that in 1232 it finally lost the Embrunais and the
Gapengais, which it had obtained about 1208 when it became
heir to the Counts of Forcalquier (a small town above the right
bank of the lower course of the Durance). The next count,
Raymond Berengar iv., rebuilt (1231) the little town of Bar-
celonnette in the Ubaye valley, giving it that name because
the elder branch of his house held (with the crown of Aragon)
the county of Barcelona. The marriage (1246) of his daughter
and heiress, Beatrice, to Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis,
brought Provence into close connection with the kingdom of
France, to which it was finally annexed in 1481 by the testament
of the last count. But before that date the county had been
shorn of some of its finest districts. Under the House of Anjou
the Counts of Provence had acquired (1259-1260, 1306-1347)
much territory on the E. slope of the Alps, so that they ruled over
many of the Alpine valleys thereon situated, those of the Varaita,
the Maira, the Stura, the Gesso, and the Vermenagna. On the
extinction of the first Angevin house of the Counts of Provence
(1382), the new count, dazzled by the prospect of the crown of
Naples (to which he had become entitled by the will of Queen-
Countess Joanna) gave up all his rights over these parts to the
junior branch of the House of Savoy (from which in 14 18 the
senior branch inherited them, with Piedmont). The elder branch
of the House of Savoy, too, in 1382 acquired the town of
Cuneo, which commands the great passes of the Col de
I'Argentiere, leading by the Stura and Ubaye valleys to
Barcelonnette, and of the Col de Tenda, leading by the
Vermenagna and Roja valleys to VentimigUa. Both formed
part of the county of Nice, which had in the tenth and eleventh
centuries been ruled by its local counts, who acknowledged the
Counts of Provence as their suzerain, and later on the town had
become practically independent. In the course of the struggle
between the second Angevin dynasty of Provence and the junior
or Durazzo branch of the House of Naples, the former was on the
point of occupying Nice, which submitted (1388) to the House
of Savoy, rather than accept the rule of the new line of Counts
of Provence. In this way the great county of Nice (including

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 91

the valley of the Var, with its tributaries, the Tinee and the
Vesubie, together with the uppermost bit of that of the Verdon,
as well as the valley of the Ubaye which communicates with
the Tinee valley by easy passes), split off from Provence and
came into the possession of the Counts of Savoy, this in-
heritance including only the middle bit of the Roja valley. Thus
the county of Provence ceased to have any relation to the Alps,
and passes out of our sight;

We are now in a position to consider the final struggle for
the Western Alps between France (the heir of the Dauphins)
and the House of Savoy (which in 1418 had inherited Piedmont
from its cadet branch). It may be roughly summed up in the
statement that both parties gradually withdrew, as it were, the
feelers which each possessed on that slope of the Alps whereon
their interests were becoming less and less important — in short,
that each, however unconsciously, tried to make the crest of the
Alps the frontier between their territories. In modern phrase,
an ' adjustment ' of frontiers was urgently called for. Now in
1349 the lordship of Faucigny had passed, with the Dauphine
(which had held it from 1268), to France. But this district
(the valley of the Arve, and so Chamonix) is just S. of the
Chablais (held by Savoy from very early times), and it was
naturally very inconvenient for the House of Savoy (which had
actually ruled in the Faucigny, 1 253-1 268) to have a French
wedge thrust in between divers of their own territories. Hence
in 1355 France gave up this district (with Gex, N. of Geneva)
to Savoy, receiving in exchange various lands (Voiron, etc.) N.
of Grenoble. This was the first step in a long drawn out pro-
cess. In 1529 the French occupied the marquessate of Saluzzo
(the lower Varaita valley, of which the uppermost part had for
ages belonged to the Dauphine), but in 1588 this was won by
the House of Savoy, which in 1601 obtained a formal cession
from France in exchange for the non-Alpine lands of Bresse,
Bugey, and Gex. Nevertheless the uppermost bit of the Varaita

92 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

valley, with the various districts in the Dora Riparia and
Chisone valleys enumerated in detail above (together with the
lower Chisone valley and Pinerolo, 1536-1574, and 1630-1695)
remained French, though situated on that slope of the Alps on
which the House of Savoy was now setting firm foot: on the other
hand, the House of Savoy held Barcelonnette with the rest of the
county of Nice on what was becoming the French slope of the
Alps. Hence an exchange was advantageous to both parties, and
so by the Treaty of Utrecht (17 13) the House of Savoy gave up
Barcelonnette in exchange for the French districts just named.
It was during a temporary reoccupation by France of the lower
Chisone valley that there came into existence for a few years
(1704-8) the quaint little Vaudois 'Republic of St. Martin,'
which was composed of the Germanasca valley (which joins that
of the Chisone at Perosa), and during its short life was under
the protection of France. It was not till i860 that the rest of
the county of Nice, with Savoy itself, became French finally,
though they had been occupied from 1792 to 181 5. Thus the
frontier between France and the realms of the House of Savoy
was 'rectified,' the only exceptions to the 'natural frontier'
being (as was pointed out in the last chapter) that the heads
of certain Alpine valleys on the S.W. slope were left (for the
sake of the hunting rights) in the hands of Savoy, which also
kept the upper and lower bits of the Roja valley, as being part
of the county of Tenda-Ventimiglia, and so not included in the
cession of the county of Nice.

Meanwhile the House of Savoy had been gathering in territory
on the E. slope of the Alps other than that obtained from France.
It did indeed lose the district of Aigle (1475) and the barony of
Vaud (1536) to Berne, as well as the Lower Vallais (1475-6) to
the Swiss, who, however, only occupied the Chablais for a few
years (1536-1564). But in 1418 the House of Savoy inherited
Piedmont from its cadet branch, having the year before obtained
from the Emperor Sigismund the title of Duke, and transferring
its capital in 1559 from Chambery to Turin. In 1575 it
obtained the county of Tenda and in 1631-1703 the marquessate
of Montferrat. By the Treaty of Utrecht (17 13) it gained the

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 93

crown of Sicily, which in 1720 it exchanged for that of Sardinia,
this last-named title being only altered in 1861 for the proud
name King of Italy. From the Milanese it won by the Treaty
of Utrecht (1713) the upper valley of the Sesia, and in 1743, by
that of Worms, the Val d'Ossola (with its side glens), the cession
of these relatively small bits of territory being of importance to
us as they affect the political history of Monte Rosa. To com-
plete our tale of how the House of Savoy came to rule over the
entire E. slope of the Western Alps let us add that Genoa and
the coast were won in 181 5, while Lombardy and Venetia fell in
respectively in 1859 and 1866, but these regions belong to the
Central and Eastern Alps, of which the political history will be
sketched below.

Political Peaks (Western Alps)

After this long journey through history, let us apply what we
have learnt from it and consider briefly what was formerly the
political status of some of the great mountain groups in the
Western Alps, for, after all, they, with their neighbours in the
Central and Eastern Alps, form the real subject of this work.

In the Maritime Alps the highest summits are now Italian,
even most of those on the watershed, because they came to the
House of Savoy with the county of Nice (1388), and, for the
sake of Victor Emmanuel's hunting rights, were not given over to
France in i860. The highest purely French summit in this
region is the Mont Pelat (10,017 ft.) while the frontier runs over
the Mont Tinibras (9948 ft.), but the highest peak of all, the
Punta deir Argentera (10,794 ft.) is wholly Italian, and rises on a
spur N. of the main watershed. Farther N. the lofty peaks (the
highest is the Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 ft., which is on
a spur W. of the main ridge) round the head of the Ubaye valley
are now French, so far as regards their W. slope, since they were
handed over to France at the Treaty of Utrecht (17 13), and so
till the same date was a portion of their E. slope (towards the
head of the Val Varaita); but that bit of the E. slope then

94 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

(1713) became Savoyard, as did the remainder of the E. slope in
1 60 1, when Savoy got it with the marquessate of Saluzzo.

Monte Viso, itself, like so many great Alpine summits, rises on
a spur (this time E.) of the main chain. Its S. slope was there-
fore part of the Dauphine till this became French in 1349, and
continued so till 17 13, while its N. slope was in the marquessate
of Saluzzo, and so became Savoyard in 1601 only.

The great mass of the Dai/phitte Alps stands W. of the main
chain, so that they have been wholly French from 1349, when
the Dauphine was sold to that power, but their S. slope was
Provencal, till the Gapengais passed to the Dauphine' in 1232.
In the case of the high ranges that rise in the Maurienne (Arc
valley) and Tarentaise (upper Isere valley) they were always
Savoyard from the eleventh century till i860, when Savoy was
ceded to France. The highest summit therein (the Grande
Casse, 12,668 ft.) is far to the W. of the main chain, so that it
is now wholly French. But the other slope of the Alps of the
Maurienne is Italian now, since it was formerly Savoyard.
Yet the frontier line is so drawn that the summit of the Roche-
melon (11,605 ft.) was in i860 left in Italy, as it before had
been for ages in the hands of the House of Savoy, which can
thus still boast of having owned since the eleventh century the
first snow mountain in the Alps that was ever scaled by man
(1358). On the E. side of the main watershed rises the Grand
Paradis group, of which the N. slope has always been Aostan
(that is, Savoyard), though the S. slope only came to the House
of Savoy when it acquired the Canavese (upper Oreo valley) in

1313-

The political history of the chain oi Mo?tt B iafic has been singu-
larly varied. As is well known, the S.S.E. slopes are now Italian,
and the N.W. slope French (as part of Savoy), while the N.E.
end is Vallaisan (and so Swiss). What is the explanation of this
threefold division ? It is simply the result of historical causes.
The S. slope is now Italian because the House of Savoy has held
the valley of Aosta, one of its earliest possessions, since the
middle of the eleventh century. The N. slope (Chamonix, or the
upper Arve valley) came in 1268 to the Dauphine through a lucky

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THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 95

marriage (1241) with the heiress of the Faucigny, and remained
with that dynasty till 1349, when it passed, with the rest of its
dominions, to France. But this state of things was very incon-
venient for the Count of Savoy, who had held the district (1253-
1268), as it thrust up a great French wedge between the districts
of Aosta (S.) and the Chablais (N.), so that in 1355 he got it by
exchange in return for some lands near Voiron. It did not become
French (of course, from 1349 to 1355 it was part of the Dauphine,
and so not strictly of France) till 1792, was lost in 1814, and
was won finally in i860. Thus from 1355 to i860 (save 1792-
18 14) the N. slope of the chain was Savoyard, as the S. slope has
always been. There now remains to account for that odd little
Swiss bit at the N.E. extremity of the chain. In the thirteenth
century the Lower Vallais was taken from the Bishop of Sion by
the House of Savoy, but in 1475-6 it was recovered by the bishop,
with the aid of the ' tithings ' of the Upper Vallais, and remained
a subject district till it was freed in 1798, becoming Swiss, when
the Vallais became Swiss, in 18 15. Note, too, that the Swiss and
French bits of the chain (but not the Italian bit) are included in
the Swiss and N. Savoyard districts which were neutralised in
1 81 5 at the Congress of Vienna.

As regards the actual summit of Mont Blanc the French (and
their official maps) draw the frontier line slightly to the S. (over
the Mont Blanc de Courmayeur) of the culminating point. But
the Italians (and //^e/V official maps) make the frontier line follow
the watershed, and so pass over the actual top, and not to its S.
Some of the older maps seem to be in favour of the French con-
tention, as well as apparently the map annexed to the report of
the Boundary Commission of 1861 ; but this last map is declared
by the Italians to reproduce a mistake of the original Sardinian
map, published in 1854, but later corrected. The text of the
Report favours the Italian contention, stating that the boundary
follows the watershed, and so passes over the summit of Mont
Blanc. The Grand Combin itself rises to the N. of the main
watershed, so that the W. slope of this group was Savoyard from
the thirteenth century to 1476, but its E. slope (Val de Bagnes
side) was Savoyard for a much longer time, as the upper Val de

96 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Bagnes was given in 1252 by the Count of Savoy to the lords of
Quart in the Aosta valley, and seems to have remained Aostan
(despite many attacks by the Vallaisans) till the early seventeenth
century, when it finally became Vallaisan. Almost all the peaks
round AroUa stand N. of the main watershed, and so are and
have always been purely Vallaisan. Those on the watershed share
the fate of the Matterhorn, and are half- Vallaisan and half- Aostan
(that is, Savoyard). The highest summit, the Dufourspitze
(15,217 ft,), of Monte Rosa, rises W. of the watershed, and so is
entirely Swiss (that is, Vallaisan), being thus the loftiest summit
of Switzerland, which is not the Mischabel or Dom, as often
stated. The other summits of Monte Rosa mainly rise on the
watershed itself. Hence their N. or W. slope has always been
Vallaisan ; but their S. and E. flank was always in the Milanese
till in 1 7 13 the upper Val Sesia was given to the House of Savoy,
which also in 1743 got, with the Val d'Ossola, the side glen of
the Val Anzasca, above which Monte Rosa towers up so grandly.
It is amusing to think that the great Alpine summits have thus
had divers political fates. This, however, was not due to any
action on their part, but to the struggles of the human midgets at
their feet, who were perhaps regarded by the cloud-capped
mountains as intruders, dividing up that to which they had no
right save force. Till very recently, too, these midgets never
dared to come within the range of the heavy artillery (such as
avalanches) of the Alpine giants, which came into existence
geologically before man, and may perhaps long survive his
extinction.

2. THE CENTRAL ALPS
(From the Simplon to the Reschen Scheideck)

In tracing the political history of this region we are at
once confronted by a difficulty which does not exist either
in the Western or in the Eastern Alps. It relates to the great
mountain masses which rise hke islets at some distance from the
main chain, being connected with it by a narrow sound or

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 97

isthmus only. Now in the Western Alps such ranges passed
from one dynasty to the other without any local struggle, the
S. slope of the Pelvoux group by virtue of purchase in 1232 by
the Counts of Albon from those of Provence, while the Western
Graians (between the Maurienne and the Tarentaise) were quietly
ceded in i860 by the king of Sardinia to France, together with
the rest of Savoy. Again, in the Eastern Alps the tangled ranges
that stand N. of the main chain were the subject of a long
struggle, but of the same struggle in which the main chain
was involved. In the Central Alps the state of things is quite
different. Here we have a protracted struggle for the main
chain between the holders of the Milanese and the three
Swiss districts which bordered immediately on that duchy — the
Vallais, Uri, and the Orisons. Quite apart from and totally
distinct from this struggle, there is another fight going on between
these three border Swiss districts and their rivals (also Swiss) to
the N. — in short, in the case of the Swiss ranges which rise N.
of the main chain, a sort of civil territorial war is waged which
has only the remotest connection, if indeed it has any, with the
international struggle taking place to the S. Thus while the
Vallais, Uri, and the Orisons all contend with the holders of the
Milanese on the S., they also resist or attack their neighbours
to the N. It is true that Berne never got a permanent footing
in the Vallais, but Uri and the Vallais did secure pasturages
which lie within the limits of Berne and Unterwalden and Olarus,
while the Orisons greatly extended their domains towards the N.
by first securing the support of the communities which from 1436
onwards formed the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, and then by
buying up the rights therein of the lords of the manor.

We must thus consider the international and the local political
history of the Central Alps in two separate sections, in order not
to lose the thread in this tangled labyrinth.

A. — The Struggle with the Milanese

The kingdom of Italy {i.e. Lombardy or N. Italy) lasted from
the conquest of the Lombards (774) by Charles the Oreat till

98 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the time of the Great Interregnum (1254-12 73), when it was
lost to the Emperors. It then broke up into a number of bits,
held by powerful cities or great feudal nobles. Here we have to
follow the fortunes of one of these cities.

In 1277 the prosperous city of Milan, situated at the meeting-
point of the routes over many Alpine passes, and in the fertile
plain of Lombardy, submitted to the wealthy House of Visconti.
In the course of the fourteentS century the new lords of Milan
greatly increased their domains at the expense of other families.
In 1335 they secured Como and so Chiavenna and the Valtelline,
in 1342 Bellinzona and Locarno, about 1350 Bormio and
Poschiavo, in 1354 the Novarese, and in 1378 and 1381 the
lower and the upper Val d'Ossola, while in 1395 the Emperor
Wenceslaus raised them to the dignity of dukes. This rapidly
growing power naturally excited the jealousy and the fears of the
communities which were rising on the N. slope of the Alpine
chain, and so the inevitable struggle began. But before attempt-
ing to trace its various phases let us briefly sketch the future
political fortunes of the Milanese, as it may be useful for the
understanding of the later sections of our history. The Visconti
dynasty came to an end in 1447, and in 1450 was replaced by
that of the Sforzas, the founder of which had married the illegiti-
mate daughter of the last Visconti. The Sforzas ruled, at least
in name, till 1535, but the duchy was occupied at several times
by invaders, for it had become an object of desire not merely to
the Swiss, but to the French and to the Habsburgs. Thus the
French held it from 1500 to 1512, and again from 1515 to 1521,
while from 1512 to 1515 the Swiss occupied it, under the nominal
rule of Maximilian Sforza, whose brother ruled from 1521 to
1535. On the extinction of the Sforza family (1535) the
Milanese reverted to the Emperor Charles v.; in 1540 he
granted it to his son, Philip, who in 1556 became king of Spain.
It remained part of the Spanish inheritance till 17 14, when by
the Treaty of Utrecht it became Austrian, which it had been
practically since 1706. Towards the end of the eighteenth
century the Milanese went through a rapid succession of political
changes. In 1796 it formed part of the Lombard Republic; in

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 99

1797, of the Cisalpine Republic ; in 1802, of the Italian Republic;
and in 1805, of the kingdom of Italy. Finally, in 1814, it returned
to the House of Austria, which ruled therein till 1859, when the
Milanese became part of the Sardinian kingdom, and soon after
(1861) of the new kingdom of United Italy.

But during these centuries the Milanese had sustained both
permanent losses (the Val Leventina in 1440, Poschiavoin i486,
Bellinzona in 1500, Lugano and Locarno in 1512) as well as
temporary losses (Bormio and Chiavenna, with the Valtelline,
from 1512 to 1797). These losses were gains to the Swiss, and
we must now turn to that side of the subject.

A glance at a map will show that between the Simplon and
the Stelvio Pass four long valleys run up from the S. to the main
watershed of the Alps, in each case seeming to thrust back this
watershed towards the N. These valleys are those of Ossola or
of the Tosa, of Leventina or the Ticino, of the Liro or of San
Giacomo (above Chiavenna), and of the Valtelline or of the
Adda (the history of the second pair being identical). Being
both easy of access from the N., and commanding the rich plains
on the S., these valleys formed the scene of the prolonged
struggle the history of which we are studying. It resulted in the
permanent loss of the Val Leventina only, the three other glens
being only held for a longer or shorter time by the invaders from
the N. In fact, this struggle is really a series of three more or
less separate struggles, carried out by different actors.

(a). Let us consider first the Val d' Ossola, or the Tosa valley,
which at its head (the Val Formazza) is still inhabited by German-
speaking colonists from the Vallais, who came thither in the
thirteenth century. Into the Tosa valley lead, directly or in-
directly, all the great passes over the Alps from the Upper
Vallais to the E. — the Monte Moro, the Antrona Pass, the
Simplon, the Albrun Pass, and the Gries Pass. Now all these
passes were very important from the commercial point of view,
especially the Gries, as over it came by way of the Grimsel much
merchandise to and from Berne. Hence, quite apart from any
strategical considerations, the possession of the Val d'Ossola meant
much to the Swiss, and in particular to the Upper Vallaisans.

lOO THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

A short occupation in 1410 by Uri, Obwalden, Glarus, Zug, and
Lucerne was followed by a longer one (1411-14) by all the Con-
federates save Berne {i.e. Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne,
Zug, Glarus, and Zurich), who had, however, to yield possession to
the Duke of Savoy's troops which crossed the Simplon and so
took them in the rear. Retaken in 14 16 by the Confederates
(save Berne and Schwyz), helped by the Vallaisans, the Val
d'Ossola had to be given up, like the other Milanese conquests
by the Swiss, after the disastrous battle of Arbedo in 1422. But
in October-November, 1425, another raid by the Confederates
(helped this time by Berne as well as by the Vallais) across the
Albrun Pass led to a short occupation, which came to an end in
1426, when the valley was sold back to the Duke of Milan. The
prize was, however, too tempting to be definitively given up, and
was once more held from 1512 to 151 5, with other Italian con-
quests, by all the twelve Confederates, save Appenzell. But after
the fight of Marignano (1515) the Val d'Ossola was finally lost
to the Swiss, despite their century's struggle.

{b). The Swiss were more fortunate in the case of the Val
Leventina or the Ticino valley, down which now thunder the
huge engines of the St. Gotthard railway, and of the districts
lying to the S. of that Val. The St. Gotthard is the great pass
by which Uri communicates directly with the S., and so the men
of Uri did their best to extend their power in that direction, as
well as in others, for they could not abide to be shut up for good
in their narrow valley of the Reuss. Hence in 1403, with the
help of Obwalden, they occupied the long-coveted Val Leventina
(which properly belonged to the metropolitan see of Milan), and
in 14 1 9 further secured their position by the purchase from the
Sax lords (who ruled in the adjoining Val Mesocco, and had in
1403 taken the town from Milan) of Bellinzona, which is the key
to the entrance into the mountains. But both were lost in 1422
after the fatal day of Arbedo. A second attempt was more
successful. This time it was made by Uri alone, which in 1440
won back the Val Leventina (and ruled over it till 1798), while in
1500 (helped by Schwyz and Nidwalden) Uri secured for good
Bellinzona, together with the Val Blenio and the ' Riviera ' or

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS loi

region between Biasca, at the junction of the last-named valley
with the Val Leventina, and Bellinzona — this entire district being
ruled till 1798 by the three Cantons, whose names are still borne
by the three fifteenth century castles at Bellinzona. Finally, in
15 12, the Swiss, on the point of becoming the masters of Milan,
occupied, and that for good, the fertile region of Locarno, the Val
Maggia, Lugano, and Mendrisio, and did not lose them in 1515
as they lost Milan itself: this region was ruled by all the twelve
Confederates, Appenzell having no share (admitted in 15 13). In
1798 the Swiss, however, lost all their Italian conquests to the
Helvetic Republic, of which the Canton of Bellinzona took in
that town and the Val Leventina, while the Canton of Lugano
comprised the acquisitions of 15 12. But in 1803 both these
Cantons were united to form the single one of Tessin or Ticino,
which was then admitted to full rights as one of the 19
Cantons.

Such is the history of ' Italian Switzerland,' a region which at
first astonishes the traveller, as he cannot see how what are
clearly in point of climate, etc., parts of Italy can possibly belong
to the Swiss. It simply consists of the conquests made by the
Swiss in the fifteenth century, and not lost by them (as was the
Val d'Ossola). This fact accounts also for the purely conven-
tional nature of the frontier line, especially S. of Lugano, for it
extends to within three miles of the town of Como (which, no
doubt, the Swiss would have liked to swallow also), while the
Canton of Tessin includes most of the Lake of Lugano and the
most northerly bit of the Lago Maggiore. Scarcely anywhere
else can historical geography explain a more curious state of
things, for Tessin is simply a great slice of the Milanese in the
hands of non-Italians.

ic). We now pass to the case of the possessions (that is, the
Valtelline) held by the Orisons, or the Three Leagues of Reetia,
in the Milanese. But we must take care not to include in these
the Val Bregagha (down which runs the road from the Maloja
Pass towards Chiavenna), for, though in 803 Charles the Great
bestowed it on the Bishop of Como, in 960 it was given by
the Emperor Otto i. to the Bishop of Coire (who thus held

I02 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

both slopes of the Septimer Pass, the principal mediaeval
route over this portion of the Alps), and has never since been
lost by the Grisons, his heirs in title. We may also dispose
at once of the case of the Val Mesocco (or Misoxthal), which
in 1026 was granted (in order to guard the Alpine passes) to
the Bishop of Como. But his powers, by 12 19 at the latest, had
passed into the hands of the Sax lords, by whom the valley
(included in the Upper Reetian League since 1480) was sold
in 1494 to the Trivulzio family of Milan, which in 1496 entered
the Upper Rsetian League, and in 1549 sold to it all their
manorial rights. As the Val Mesocco joins the Val Leventina
at Bellinzona its history forms a link between that of the
Milanese conquests of the Grisons and those of Uri and its
allies. Further, the possession of this valley by non-Milanese
means that both sides of the San Bernardino Pass have since
1496 been in Raetian {i.e. practically Swiss) hands, a fact which
has had its influence on the historical fortunes of that pass,
early known as the ' Vogelberg ' or ' Mons Avium,' but in the
fifteenth century renamed from a chapel dedicated to San
Bernardino of Siena, on its S. slope.

Apart from the cases of the Val Bregaglia and the Val
Mesocco, the struggle in this portion of the Alps lies between
the holders of the Milanese, as successors in title (in 1335)
of the Bishop and city of Como, and the Three Rjetian
Leagues. Li 775 Charles the Great, after overcoming the
Lombards, made a gift of the Valtelline (with Poschiavo and
Bormio, as it would seem from the confirmation granted in 843)
to the monastery of St. Denis near Paris, which, probably,
never exercised any real power in these remote districts. At
any rate, in 824 Lothair i. gave them to the Bishop of Como
(who had received Chiavenna in 803), though in 841 he
reserved the suzerainty to St. Denis. But at some later date
these districts (save Chiavenna) were committed to the charge
of the Bishop of Coire, a faithful friend of the Emperors, and
so thought worthy of being intrusted with the guardianship of
the Alpine passes. However, from at least the early thirteenth
century the authority of the bishops was practically superseded

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 103

in Bormio and Poschiavo by that of their powerful vassals, the
Matsch family, which, further, in 13 13, obtained from the
Emperor Henry vii. a mortgage of the Valtelline. But the
rising power of the Visconti at Milan proved too strong, after
their entrance on the lands of Como (1335), even for the
Matsch family. About 1350 (the Valtelline in 1336 already)
all these districts were lost to them and their master, the
Bishop of Coire, and formed part of the Milanese, soon (1395)
to become an independent duchy (Poschiavo was again held
by the Bishop of Coire from 1394 to 1470). On the other
hand, Chiavenna had been given in 803 by Charles the Great
to the Bishops of Como, whom the Bishops of Coire were
never able to oust, despite several attempts, and whose
supremacy in that region they acknowledged in 12 19.

Now in 1385 the ruler of Milan, Barnabas Visconti, was
slain by his nephew, Gian Galeazzo, but the youngest son of
Barnabas, named Mastino, escaped and took refuge with the
Bishop of Coire, to whom in 1404 he made a donation of all
his rights over Bormio, the Valtelline, Poschiavo, and
Chiavenna. This donation was the pretext, in virtue of which
the bishop (and his heirs, the Three Raetian Leagues) claimed
possession of these districts. But they actually acquired them
at different times — Poschiavo in i486, Bormio, Chiavenna, and
the Valtelline in 151 2. Poschiavo was never lost again, while
the other districts remained in the hands of the Rgetian
Leagues till 1797, then passing to the Cisalpine Republic, and
henceforth sharing the fortunes of the rest of the Milanese
(Italian Republic, 1802 ; kingdom of Italy, 1805 ; Austria,
1814; Sardinian kingdom, 1859; and United Italy, 1861).
Let us note, too, that the three villages (Dongo, Domaso, and
Gravedona) near the N. end of the Lake of Como, which are
known as the ' Tre Pievi ' (the three parishes), submitted to
the Raetian Leagues in 15 12, but were lost to them in 1525,
and became again part of the Milanese.

The valley of Livigno, which lies on the N. slope of the
main Alpine chain, shared throughout the fortunes of the
county of Bormio, in which it was included, and hence, with

104 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the Val di Lei (in the county of Chiavenna) is, as we pointed
out in the last chapter, the only bit of Italian territory which
stretches over on to the non-Italian slope of the Alps. In 1635
Livigno was the scene of a remarkable campaign by Rohan
and the French against the Imperial troops, and it is most
interesting to trace out on the spot, as the writer of these lines
has done, the various phases of this little Alpine war. This
campaign of Rohan formed part of the great struggle between
the French and Spanish for the possession of the Valtelline,
by means of which the Spanish holders of the Milanese could
easily communicate with the Austrian branch of the Habsburgers
in the Tyrol. That struggle was prolonged for nearly twenty
years (1620-1639), the French holding the Valtelline 1624-7
and 1635-7, a^d the Pope in 1623 and in 1627, while the
Spaniards occupied it for most of the remainder of the time.
The famous Grisons leader, Georg Jenatsch, supported the
French in 1635, but then went over to the Spanish side till he
was assassinated in 1639, and a little later the Spaniards
restored the valley to the RcCtian Leagues.

Political Peaks (Central Alps)

The peaks which rise on or near the watershed of the Central
Alps are not so well known to most people as are those in a
corresponding situation in the Western Alps. The two loftiest
summits of the Lepontine Alps, the Monte Leone (11,684 ft.)
and the Blindenhorn (11,103 ^^•)^ both rise on the watershed,
and so have shared the fortunes of the Upper Vallais and of
the Val Formazza, the highest reach of the Val d'Ossola. But
one of the next in height, the Basodino (10,749 ft.), rises to the
E. of the main chain, though it, too, is on a political frontier,
namely that between the Val Formazza and the Val Maggia,
so that its E. slope has been Swiss since 15 12 only. If we go
on in a N.E. direction, we find that the two highest summits
of the Gotthard group, the Pizzo Rotondo (10,489 ft.) and the
Pizzo di Pesciora (10,247 ft.), are on the main watershed ; hence
their W. slope is Vallaisan, but their E. slope, being in Tessin,

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 105

is Swiss since 1440, when the Val Leventina was finally acquired
by Uri. The third peak in that group, the Wyttenwasserstock,
has, however, a still more curious history : its E. and lower
point (9922 ft.) is on the principal watershed, but it rises also
at the point of junction of the boundaries of the cantons of
Uri, Vallais, and Tessin, and thus is wholly Swiss, though its
different slopes have become Swiss at different times — the N.
slope in 1291 (Uri), the E. slope in 1803 (Tessin), and the
W. slope in 1815 (Vallais); further, this lower summit sends
down streams to three seas (like the Pizzo Lunghino, of which
more below), in this case, by the Ticino and the Po to the
Hadriatic, by the Rhone to the Mediterranean, and by the
Reuss and Rhine to the North Sea. On the other hand, the
far finer higher summit (10,119 ft.) rises simply on the frontier
between the Vallais and Uri. Continuing our journey east-
wards we note that both Scopi (10,499 ft.) and the Piz Medel
(10,509 ft.) in the Adula Alps rise on the watershed between
the Grisons and Tessin, as does the culminating point of the
group, the Rheinwaldliorn (11,149 ft.). With the last-named
peak we finally quit Tessin, which since the Basodino and the
Pizzo Rotondo has had such a curious influence on many
summits on the main watershed, showing thus that it is purely
by an historical accident or oddity that Switzerland extends
across the great line of the Alps. On either side of the
Spliigen Pass Piz Tambo (10,749 ft-) and the Surettahorn
(9945 ft-) rise on the great watershed, and also, to our relief, on
the frontier between the Grisons and Italy. But beyond, at
the Pizzo Gallegione (10,201 ft.) the poHtical frontier dips S.E.,
so that while that summit is shared by Italy and the Grisons,
its neighbours to the E., such as the Pizzo della Duana
(10,279 ft-) and the Pizzo Lunghino (9121 ft.), are, though on
the main watershed, yet not merely wholly Swiss, but belong
wholly to one single Swiss canton, for both the Avers valley
and the Oberhalbstein, as well as the Val Bregaglia, form part
of the Grisons. The Pizzo Lunghino, too, occupies a very
remarkable topographical position, since from its flanks
streams flow to three seas, in this case, by the Rhine to the

io6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

North Sea, by the Maira and Adda and Po to the Mediter-
ranean, and by the Inn to the Black Sea : it is, too, the point
at which the ranges enclosing the Engadine split off from each
other. Keeping along that to the S.E., and so on the main
crest of the Alps, we find that almost all the higher summits
of the Bernina Alps are half in the Grisons and half in the
Valtelline {i.e. Italy) : such is very nearly the case with Piz
Bernina (13,304 ft.), and quite the case with Piz Roseg (12,934
ft.) and Piz Zupo (13,151 ft.), but the splendid Monte della
Disgrazia (12,067 ft.) is an exception to this general rule, for
it rises S. of the watershed, and so is wholly within the
Valtelline, though it was wholly Swiss, or rather Rsetian,
from 15 1 2 to 1797.

More to the E., between the Bernina, Reschen Scheideck,
and Stelvio Passes, the physical watershed and the political
frontier seem to take a pleasure in not agreeing with one
another, the cause being that Poschiavo, and the upper
Miinster valley, though on the S. slope of the Alps, are
politically Swiss, while the valley of Livigno, though on the
N. slope of the great watershed, is politically Italian. Start-
ing from the Bernina Pass the physical watershed joins the
political frontier near the Corno di Carapo (10,844 ft), which,
therefore, like its neighbour on the S.E., the Cima di Saoseo
(10,752 ft.), is half Swiss and half Italian, though the two
loftiest summits between the Bernina Pass and the Reschen
Scheideck or the Stelvio, namely the Cima di Piazzi (11,283 ft.)
and the Cima Viola (11,103 ft-)) ^'^'^^ to the E. of the frontier,
and so are wholly Italian (though Swiss from 151 2 to 1797),
as being situated in the county of Bormio. From the Corno
di Campo the watershed runs, roughly speaking, N.E., along
the E. side of the Livigno valley, and on the rolling plateau
which forms the summit-level of the Fraele Pass (6398 ft.)
meets the political frontier, which has made a long round,
first N., then N.E., finally S.E., and formed the boundary
between the Engadine and the Livigno valley — Piz Languard
(10,716 ft.) stands rather to the W. of the frontier, so is wholly
Swiss. But, having met, the two boundaries part at once, not

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 107

to meet once more till they reach the Urtiolaspitze (9551 ft.)
to the N.E. of the village of Miinster in the Miinster valley.
The political frontier soon bears S.E. from the Fraele Pass
in order to gain the Stelvio Pass (9055 ft), just N. of which
rises the low summit named the Dreisprachenspitze (9328 ft.),
as it marks the meeting-point of the districts in which Italian,
German, and Ladin are spoken, and also, since 1859, the
meeting-point of the political frontiers between Switzerland,
Italy, and Austria : the Austro-Italian frontier runs N. and
S. across the Stelvio (the carriage road, of course, runs E.
and W.), that between Switzerland and Italy, which we are
following, keeping N. for a while till it bends N.W. to cut
across the Miinster valley before reaching the Urtiolaspitze.
Meanwhile from the Fraele Pass the watershed keeps N.E, to the
Ofen Pass (7071 ft.), and then bears E. to the Urtiolaspitze.
Both continue for a short distance along the ridge to the N.
of the Urtiolaspitze, but then the political frontier keeps N.
so as to reach the Lower Engadine at Martinsbruck, while the
watershed runs E. to the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), our
limit between the Central and the Eastern Alps. Surely there is
no other region in the Alps where the physical and the political
frontiers are so interlaced as in that which we have just been
describing, and this simply for reasons connected with the
political history of the district. Did the theory of natural
frontiers hold good in this part of the Alps, Poschiavo and the
upper Miinster valley should be respectively Italian and
Tyrolese, while Livigno should be Swiss. Hardly anywhere
else in the Alps, save in the Maritime Alps, or near Caprile or
Cortina, in the Dolomites, does the traveller realise better the
meaning of the phrase ' a conventional frontier.' It is history,
and history alone, which can supply the key to such com-
plicated puzzles.

B. — The Struggle towards the North

We must now turn our eyes towards the North. After
the reversion (1032) of the kingdom of Burgundy to the

io8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Empire, Conrad ii. committed (1038) the rule in Burgundy
(roughly speaking, the W. half of present Switzerland) as well
as the duchy of Alamannia or of Swabia (roughly speaking, the
E. half of present Switzerland), to his son, Henry, who, elected
next year to the Empire, was able to maintain his power in
these regions, with a strong hand, till his death (1056). In
1057 both dignities were bestowed by Henry's widow on her
favourite, Rudolf of Rheinfelden, who, not content with this,
set himself up in 1077 as rival Emperor, supported by the
Pope, against his brother-in-law, Henry iv., though this act
of daring cost him his crown and his life (1080). Rudolf's
heir and son-in-law, Berchtold of Zaringen, however, continued
the struggle for these lands (though not for the crown)
against the Hohenstaufen family, which Henry iv. had in-
vested (1079) with the duchy of Swabia. The Zaringen dynasty
was successful, for in 1097 the Hohenstaufens were pushed
back behind the Rhine and the imperial fief of Ziirich
given to their rival, while in 11 27 the Emperor made the
Duke of Zaringen ' Rector of Burgundy,' or his representa-
tive in that region, thus practically abdicating, so far as
regards this portion of his realm, in favour of the powerful
Zaringen dynasty. The Zaringen family became extinct in
1218 (though by the foundation of Fribourg, about 1177, and
of Berne in 1191, it left an indelible mark on its dominions),
and all its fiefs reverted to the Empire, the power of which in
these regions was getting weaker and weaker. On the one
hand, various ' free cities ' were extending their borders, and
next, a new and even more powerful family than the Zaringens,
that of Habsburg (the original seat of which was the castle of
Habsburg, near Brugg, in the Swiss Aargau) in 1264 inherited
the wide domains of the Counts of Kyburg (the castle of that
name is near Winterthur), themselves the heirs (11 73) of the
earlier Counts of Lenzburg (the castle of that name is not far
from Aarau). When in 1273 the head of this great house,
Rudolf, became Emperor, it seemed as if nothing could stop its
victorious progress in the Alpine lands of the Central Alps.
But in those lands, during the prolonged struggle between

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 109

the Emperor and his great nobles, a set of tiny free communities
had been freeing themselves from any allegiance save that to
the Empire, a position which in those times meant practical
independence. Hitherto the Habsburgers had, as regards these
communities, appeared as distant and so not much to be feared
feudal overlords or lords of the manor. But on April 16, 1291,
Rudolf purchased from the abbey of Murbach, in Alsace,
its town of Lucerne, situated close to these free communi-
ties, which thus foresaw the approach of a desperate struggle
with this rapidily advancing house. Rudolf died on July 15,
1 291, and, on August i following, the representatives of these
communities, Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, concluded the
'Everlasting League' (mainly a renewal of an older alliance
probably made during the Great Interregnum, 1 254-1 273), which
was the germ of the Swiss Confederation. That League was
destined to stem the progress of the Habsburgers in the
Central Alps. But the goal was only won by the surprising
victories of Morgarten (1315), of Sempach (1386), and of
Nafels (1388), while the League was strengthened in 1332 by
the entrance of Lucerne, and in 1352 by that of Glarus and
Zug, and by the adhesion of the non-Alpine towns of Zurich
(i35i)and of Berne (1353). These were the 8 Cantons, the
number being later raised to 13 by the admission in 15 13
of the mountain land of Appenzell, as well as of the non-
Alpine towns of Fribourg (1481), Soleure (1481), Bale (1501),
and Schaffhausen (1501). After 1499 the Swiss Confederation
was no longer considered to be subject to the jurisdiction of
the Imperial Chamber (the highest judicial tribunal, erected
in 1495), though it was only by the Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
that its independence of the Empire was formally recognised.
In 18 1 5, at the Congress of Vienna, the whole of the Swiss
Confederation was made neutral territory, and its neutrality
was guaranteed by the Great Powers (including England). The
old system broke up in 1798, but on the reconstitution of
the Helvetic Republic by Napoleon's Act of Mediation (1803)
with 19 Cantons, the Alpine lands of the Grisons, Tessin,
and Vaud, were received as full members, as well as the non-

no THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Alpine lands of St. Gall, Thurgau, and Aargau. The admission
in 1815 of the Alpine district of the Vallais, as well as of
Neuchatel and Geneva, completed the Swiss Confederation
as it exists to-day, with its 22 Cantons.

This brief sketch of the territorial growth of the Swiss
Confederation has been given here because it helps us better
to understand the proper subject of this sub-section, the
struggle of the Alpine Cantons among themselves. That
domestic struggle would have been impossible had not these
previously assured themselves against external dangers on
the north — in short, against the encroachments of the Habs-
burgers. Once secured against that enemy they could dispute
freely among themselves.

This local struggle resolves itself from our point of view
(for in this work we deal with the Alpine Cantons only and
not all the Swiss Cantons in general) into three sets of struggles,
the protagonists in each case being oddly, yet naturally,
just those three border lands of the Vallais, Uri, and the
Grisons, whom we have watched during their more or less
successful attempts to secure to themselves some of the rich
lands on the other slope of the Alps. Each now strives not
with the common enemy, the holder of the Milanese, but with
its neighbour on the north, from which they are more or less
securely separated by the Alpine ranges rising N. of the
main chain, for a passage over them can be forced at several
points just as it can across the great divide itself.

{a) The Vallais and Berne. — The Vallais (which takes its
name from the old designation ' Vallis Poenina,' and so
should be spelt as above, the ordinary omission of one
of the 'Is' dating only from about 1800) now comprises
the upper valley of the Rhone, from its source to the Lake of
Geneva. But earlier its limits were narrower. By the donation
of temporal jurisdiction made in 999 by Rudolf iii., king of
Transjurane Burgundy, to the Bishop of Sion, it is probable
that the lower limit was fixed at about Martigny. But the en-

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS iii

croachments of the House of Savoy (partly in their character
as ' protectors ' of the great monastery of St. Maurice),
especially in the thirteenth century, pushed back the limit
of the bishop's rule to the small river Morge, which, flowing
from the Sanetsch Pass, joins the Rhone just below Sion.
That was the boundary settled in 1384 (confirmed in 1392)
between ' Episcopal Vallais ' and ' Savoyard Vallais.' The
bishops, as well as the great feudal nobles occupying various
districts above Sion, had, however, to fight not merely against
the House of Savoy, but also, from the fourteenth century
onwards, with the free communities which were springing
up in the uppermost reach of the Rhone valley. These are
the so-called 'Zehnen' or 'dizains.' This name obviously
suggests a derivation from the numeral 'ten,' and we may
safely accept the opinion of the chief authority on Vallais
history, the late Abbe Gremaud, that though the ' dizains '
were but seven in number — Sion, 'the capital'; Sierre, 'the
delightful ' ; Leuk, ' the strong ' ; Raron, ' the prudent ' ; Visp,
the noble'; Brieg, 'the rich'; and Conches or Goms, 'the
Catholic' — yet as that number and the limits of each were
only fixed in the fifteenth century, the name they bear is a
recollection of the time, before 1384, when two other districts,
below Sion (Ardon-Chamoson and Martigny), were ceded to
Savoy, while Granges, above Sion, by 1335 became separated
from Sierre. These ' dizains ' having in the fourteenth century
subdued the feudal nobles (the two chief houses, those of La
Tour-Chatillon or Turn, and Raron, were finally crushed in
1375 and in 1417 respectively), and practically secured the
powers formerly exercised by the bishop, were soon ready
for an advance (in the bishop's name) against Savoy. Hence
it was that in 1475-6 they overran and occupied the Vallais
from the Morge to St. Maurice, also securing in 1536 (con-
firmed in 1569) the territory (Monthey, etc.) on the left bank
of the Rhone as far as the Lake of Geneva. These conquests
of 1475-6 and 1536 formed the 'Lower Vallais,' which was
ruled harshly by the bishop and the dizains of the Upper
Vallais till 1798. Then both portions were united as the

112 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Canton of Vallais in the Helvetic Republic. But in 1802
Napoleon, desiring to secure the Alpine passes, erected this
Canton into the independent ' Rhodanic Republic,' finally, in
1 810, annexing it, under the name of the 'Department of the
Simplon,' to the French Empire. But in 18 15 the Vallais
became Swiss, and a full member of the Swiss Confederation,
with which it had had relations of alliance, more or less close,
since the early fifteenth century.

We have pointed out in the preceding chapter the very
remarkable emigration from the German-speaking Upper Vallais
which took place in the thirteenth century, and which resulted
in the establishment of Vallaisan colonies in the Val Formazza
(upper Tosa valley) as well as in the valleys at the S. and E.
base of Monte Rosa, and in the far more distant regions round
the sources of the Hinter Rhine, in the Calfeisen valley, and
even at Davos. It was only natural that similar colonies should
try to make their way over the range which shuts in the Vallais
on the N., that is, to the territory of Berne, or, strictly
speaking, that which was later to become Bernese.

Of the two great feudal families of the Upper Vallais, that of
Raron (near Visp) is now known to have been a branch of
the lords of Ringgenberg (near Interlaken), who ruled over
the N. shore of the Lake of Brienz, but, as yet, it has not
been possible to trace any political effects of this connection.
It is far otherwise in the case of the second house, that of
La Tour-Chatillon — Nieder Gestelen — or Turn (their ruined
castle rises on a height a little to the W. of that whereon
stood formerly that of the Raron family, burnt in 141 7). The
lord John of that house married (towards the end of the
thirteenth century or the beginning of the fourteenth century)
the heiress of the lords of Wadiswil, who brought with her
as her dowry the lordship of Frutigen (this including also
Kandersteg, Adelboden, and the Kien and Suld valleys),
situated on the N. slope of the Alps. As the Turn family
already held in the Vallais, among other estates, the valley of
Lotschen and that of the upper Dala (or Leukerbad), a glance
at a map will show that they were in possession of both slopes

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 113

of the Gemmi (7641 ft.) and Lotschen (8842 ft.) Passes across
the range N. of the Vallais. John's father-in-law died in
1302, and he probably then entered upon his wife's heritage
(he was already a married man in 1311). Now in 1306 we
hear of certain men (nine in number) named 'Loscherre'
(probably a form of 'Lotscher') who, together with a Grindel-
wald man and his son, purchased the piece of land at Brienz,
on which they had settled, and the pasturages above the village.
It is not stated how these men came to be at Brienz. But the
whole matter is cleared up by a document dated 1346 by
which Peter (John's son) sells to the monastery at Interlaken
all his serfs, called ' die Lotscher,' who lived at Gimmel-
wald, Miirren, Lauterbrunnen and elsewhere in the parish of
Gsteig (between Interlaken and Lauterbrunnen, the latter
village having been in that parish till 1506, when it became a
separate parish), as well as those settled near Brienz. In 1331,
1349, and 1409 we hear again of these Lotschen serfs at
Lauterbrunnen. But by the last-named date the lordship of
Frutigen had passed away from the Tour family, the last male
member of which, after its downfall in 1375-6 in the Vallais,
sold his Lauterbrunnen and Brienz serfs to the monastery of
Interlaken in 1395, and his Frutigen lordship, in 1400, to the
town of Berne. Thus ended this very curious episode in the
history of one of the great feudal lordships on the N. slope
of the Alps that shelter the Vallais. But it has left some
permanent traces in this settlement at Lauterbrunnen, where
the stream is still called Liitschine, and the dialect is not
unlike that of the Vallais. It is even possible that some men
from this colony came to settle in the neighbouring valley of
Grind^lwald (wherein these lines are written). There too the
stream is named Liitschine, while we know from other sources
that the Wadiswil lords had lands there, which may very well
have passed with their heiress to John of La Tour-Chatillon,
as the last mention of the Wadiswil family in connection with
either the Lauterbrunnen or the Grindelwald valleys is found
in 1326.

A more lasting Vallaisan possession on the N. slope of the

H

114 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Alps was the plain of Spitalmatte, with the inn or ' hospice ' of
Schwarenbach, which was decided to belong to Leukerbad as
against Frutigen, in 1318, by a judgment of lord John of Turn,
who was settling a dispute between his two bailiffs — possibly this
bit was Vallaisan as far back as 1252. At the present day the
Oberaar Alp (or pasture) on the Bernese side of the Grimsel
Pass belongs to the men of Torbel, a village on the heights
above Stalden, in the valley leading up to Zermatt. These seem
to be the only two bits of land on the N. slope of the Alps
which are held by the Vallais. Berne, however, came off worse,
for it never secured permanently any part of the Vallais. The
last raid by the Bernese was in 141 9, in consequence of the
attempt made by one of their burghers, the lord of Raron (after
his expulsion from the Vallais, owing to his sympathies with
Savoy as against the ' dizains '), to recover his estates in
the Vallais. But this invasion failed, largely owing to the
great defeat of the Bernese at the village of Ulrichen (one of the
highest in the Upper Vallais, and close to the point where the
old mule path over the Grimsel Pass reaches the level of the
Rhone valley), which was chiefly due to the brave sacrifice of
his life made by the Vallaisan leader, Thomas Riedi. One
incident in this short campaign was a skirmish on the snows
which cover the Lotschen Pass (8842 ft.), which is described
by the Bernese chronicler, Justinger, with many picturesque
touches ; in particular, he tells us how the brave Bernese drove
the Vallaisans from their vantage post on the very top of the
pass, but had themselves to bivouac on the glacier, where
they suffered much from the cold and rain (though it was
August), though they had the supreme satisfaction next day of
receiving the surrender of the Vallaisans, who appear to have
suffered even more than their conquerors.

But save at times, the relations between Berne and the Vallais
were friendly. The first alliance between the Bishop of Sion
and Berne dates back to 1252 ; the connection was very close in
the early fifteenth century, when both parties desired to get
hold of the Val d'Ossola; and in 1475 Berne helped the
Vallaisans to wrest the Lower Vallais from the Duke of Savoy.

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 115

On the other hand, the Vallais looked also towards the Forest
Cantons, with which, as early as 14 16-17, it made a treaty of
alliance.

It is hard to realise the fact, but so it is, that it was not till
the end of the fourteenth century that the town of Berne got a
footing in the Alps. When it entered the Confederation in
1353 it was simply an outpost against Savoy, which was press-
ing up towards it. But gradually, though steadily, Berne pushed
back the Savoyards, first freeing Fribourg (1454), and then
conquering the district of Aigle (1475) ^^^ the bishopric of
Lausanne and the barony of Vaud (1536), lands which she
never gave up till 1798, though in 1564 she had to restore
the Chablais, which, too, had formed part of the conquests
of 1536.

More interesting to us, however, is to trace out how Berne
secured a footing in the Alpine regions to the S.E. of the
town, which now bear the well-known name of the ' Bernese
Oberland.'

The first step in this direction was the purchase (1334) of the
imperial fief of Hasle (Meiringen, and the upper reach of the
Aar valley) from the lords of Weissenburg, to whom the Emperor
had mortgaged it in 1310-11, but as the mortgage was never
redeemed by the Empire, Hasle remained Bernese. Next in
point of date was the purchase of TAuu in 1384 from the last
representative of the cadet or Laufenburg line of the House of
Habsburg, to whom it had come as part of the inheritance of
the Counts of Kyburg. In 1386, during the Sempach war,
Berne (now a member of the Swiss Confederation) seized the
town of Unterseen (opposite Interlaken), which had been founded
in 1280 by the lords of Eschenbach, but sold by them in 1306
to the Habsburgs. The ambitious town of Berne thus held the
whole of the Aar valley above it, save the wide domains of the
great house of Austin Canons at Interlaken (founded about
1 133). The Eschenbachs had been its ' protectors ' for nearly a
century, when in 1306 they sold their Oberland estates to the
Habsburgs, but the latter, though succeeding them in that office
by 1318, were soon forced to give way before the claims of Berne.

ii6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

It was not till 1528, however, that the wealthy monastery of
Interlaketi was secularised. Then all its domains passed into the
hands of Berne, which thus secured the rest of the upper Aar
valley, namely Interlaken, Brienz, Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen,
and the villages on the lakes of Brienz and Thun. Long before
that date Berne had turned its attention to another of the main
Oberland valleys, that of the Shnine (which is always, till about
1700, and even now by the natives, named the ' Siebenthal,' not
because of the seven glens which are said to make it up, but
because of the seven springs which give rise to the Simme). In
1386 Berne occupied by force of arms its upper reach (Zwei-
simmen and Lenk), which had been bought in 1377 from its
impecunious owners, in 1391 it purchased from its owner the
lordship of Simmenegg (Boltigen and the middle reach of the
valley), and by purchase also acquired in two bits (1439 and
1449) the lowest reach (Weissenburg, Wimmis, Erlenbach)
of the same valley. Meanwhile the Bernese had not lost
sight of the third of the great Oberland valleys, that of the
Kander. This wide-branching valley, forming the lordship of
Friitigen (and thus including Frutigen, Adelboden, Kandersteg,
and the Kien valley, with the command of the Gemmi and the
Lotschen Passes), was purchased in 1400 from the last of the
lords of La Tour-Chatillon (of whom we spoke above), who had
obtained it by inheritance early in the fourteenth century, but
after his expulsion from the Vallais (1375) was getting rid of his
Oberland possessions as well: in 1395 he had given to the
monastery of Interlaken the advowson of Frutigen (till the parish
of Adelboden was formed in 1433 the whole of the Kander
valley was in the parish of Frutigen), and in the same year had
sold to the monastery all his serfs, commonly called 'die
Lotscher,' whether settled in the Lauterbrunnen valley or at
Brienz. We have mentioned above the conquest (1475) of the
district of Aigle and (1536) of the barony of Vaud by Berne. In
1555 it completed its acquisitions near the Oberland by dividing
with Fribourg the domains of the last count of the Gruyere,
whose prodigality had plunged him hopelessly into debt. Berne
then obtained the whole of the Saane or Sarine valley, above

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 117

the Tine gorge (between Montbovon and Rossiniere), but in
1798 it lost to the Canton du Leman of the Helvetic Republic
(which in 1803 parted with it to the newly formed Canton of
Vaud) the French-speaking portion of this valley, that is, the
' Pays d'En Haut ' (Rossiniere, Chateau d'Oex, and Rougemont) :
it still holds, however, the upper reach of the valley (Saanen or
Gessenay), which is very easily gained, over the Saanenmoser
Pass (4209 ft,), from the upper valley of the Simme, so that
these two districts were conveniently near together.

Such is the story of the manner in which Berne became the
capital of a wide mountain region.

{b) Uri. — In the whole of Switzerland there is no Canton (unless
it be the Vallais) which is more securely fenced in by high moun-
tains on all sides but one, than that of Uri, or the upper valley of
the Reuss. But possibly because it was the first district within the
limits of the future Swiss Confederation to obtain practical
independence by being made immediately dependent on the
Empire (853), possibly because the wild and barren nature of
the region did not satisfy the yearnings of its pastoral inhabitants,
we find that very early it made successful efforts to annex certain
territories which properly lay in the lands held by their neigh-
bours. We do not know the precise date at which the magni-
ficent pastures of the Urnerboden (on the Glarus side of the
Klausen Pass (6404 ft.) to the E. of Altdorf) were occupied by
the men of Uri. But it is certain that, before the foundation of
the Benedictine abbey of Engelberg (about 11 20) the pastures of
the Blacken Alp, on the Engelberg side of the Surenen Pass
(7563 ft.), were in the hands of the Uri men, who, in the
thirteenth century, pushed their limits a good way farther down
the valley. Hence the visitor to Engelberg (now in Obwalden)
is considerably surprised at discovering that the frontier of Uri
begins about one hour's walk up the valley. He would be even
more surprised to learn (but that he generally does not) that the
frontier of Nidwalden starts a little below Grafenort, though one
might at first have imagined that the whole valley of the Engel-

ii8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

berger Aa must belong to the Nidwalden division of the Canton
of Unterwalden, since Stans, its capital, is near the spot where it
flows into the Lake of Lucerne. This frontier is, however, due
to causes quite different from those which obtained in the upper
reach of the Aa valley. In 1798 the Nidwalden men valiantly
resisted the French army, so that when the Helvetic Republic
was set up, the territory of the abbats of Engelberg (hitherto
independent) was annexed to Obwalden as a punishment for the
Nidwaldners. The latter got the Engelberg region in 1803, but
lost it finally in 181 6, for in 18 15 they had strongly resisted the
introduction of the new regime of 1815.

More important was the incorporation of the Ursern valley
with Uri. This glen, well known to summer travellers who visit
Andermatt and one of the three passes (the Furka, the St. Gott-
hard, and the Oberalp) which give access to it, depended from
very early times on the Benedictine abbey of Disentis (founded
about 614 by the Irish monk, Sigisbert, a disciple of St. Colum-
ban), across the Oberalp Pass and at the head of the Vorder
Rhine valley. It was later an imperial fief, which till 1283 was
in the hands of the Counts of Rapperswil, and from 1 299 to 1389
(though before that date their rights had practically lapsed) in
those of the Habsburgers. The abbey thenceforward exercised
all jurisdiction therein, as it had long been the owner of lands,
etc., in the valley. But the domination of Disentis in Ursern
was naturally disagreeable to the men of Uri, for they were thus
shut out from the route to the Vallais over the Furka, and from
the much-coveted Val Leventina, in the Milanese, over the St.
Gotthard. Hence in 141 o Uri made a permanent alliance with
Ursern (the last traces of this more or less dependent condition
did not disappear till the adoption of the new cantonal constitu-
tion of 1888), while in 1649 the Ursern men bought up the
remaining manorial rights of the abbey. Thus Uri secured an
open gate both towards the Milanese and towards the Vallais.
One natural consequence of this closer connection between Uri
and Ursern was that Ursern gradually gave up the Romonsch
language which had long (though Teutonic traces appear as early
as 1309) been spoken by its inhabitants, and adopted the High

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 119

German dialect spoken in Uri. But the local names in Ursern
(originally called Orsera) still retain traces of their Romonsch
descent, though some persons, at first sight, might attribute them
to the Italian influence flowing across the St. Gotthard.

(c) The Grisons. — It is a remarkable fact that the southern-
most or mountainous portion of the old Roman province
of Rsetia preserved for a very long series of years the traces
of Roman civilisation. It included (roughly speaking) the
modern area now comprised in the Canton of the Grisons
and in the Vorarlberg (the Tyrol belonged to the Bavarians),
and its temporal rulers (bearing the Roman title 'Prseses'),
so late as the seventh and eighth centuries a.d., were
the Bishops of Coire, who are first mentioned about 452.
This region seems also to have retained to an extraordinary
degree its connection with Italy. But early in the ninth
century it was definitively cut off from Italy and made a part
of Germany. About 806 Charles the Great erected Rsetia into
a duchy, which before 847 was transferred from the ecclesi-
astical province of Milan to that of Mayence (Mainz). In
916 this duchy was united with that of Alamannia, but, as
before, was practically divided into an upper portion and a
lower, ruled by great feudal nobles, whose power grew as that
of the central authority diminished. But as early as 831 the
Bishop of Coire secured from the Emperor Louis the Pious
a charter of exemption from the jurisdiction (save in criminal
matters) of these counts, similar privileges being then granted
also to the convent of Pfafers, and sometime after (1048) to
that of Disentis. These three great ecclesiastical exempt
jurisdictions considerably stemmed the advance of the feudal
nobles, especially when in the tenth century the Bishop of
Coire obtained many fresh privileges and new domains (including
the Val Bregaglia in 960) from the Emperor Otto i. and his
successors. As time went on, the Bishop of Coire, with his vast
power and enormous domains (which were, however, smaller than
the region over which his purely spiritual jurisdiction extended),

120 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

became a standing danger to his ' men ' and to the neighbouring
nobles. This danger was increased by the Austrian leanings
of Bishop Hartmann (1388-1416) and his predecessors, for the
House of Habsburg in 1363 acquired the county of Tyrol,
and in 1375 first set foot in the Vorarlberg. Hence in 1367
the ' League of God's House ' was founded by the bishop's
subjects (the city of Coire, the Domleschg or Thusis region,
the Oberhalbstein, towards the Julier Pass, the whole Engadine,
and the Val Bregaglia), the bishop becoming its head in 1392.
This was followed in 1395 by the 'Upper League,' often
wrongly called the 'Grey League,' as it took its name not from
the grey coats of the leaguers, but from the number of feudal
counts or 'Grafen' (graven) who entered it: this League
comprised the exempt jurisdiction of the abbey of Disentis,
and the nobles of the Vorder Rhine valley, and by 1424 had
greatly increased its limits. In 1436 the last Count of Toggen-
burg died, and at once many of his subjects formed the ' League
of the Ten Jurisdictions ' (Davos, the Prattigau or Landquart
valley, and the Schanfigg valley), though this League was long
exposed to strong Austrian pressure. In the course of the
fifteenth century these Three Leagues drew nearer to each other
in order to face a common danger (affording a remarkable
parallel to the history of the rise of the Swiss Confederation
itself). In 1497 the ' Upper League,' and next year the ' God's
House League,' became ' allies' of the seven most easterly of the
ten members of the Swiss Confederation, though the ' Ten
Jurisdictions ' were then being rapidly seized by Austria, so
that it could not join in these alliances. Of course this
accession of strength greatly improved the position of the two
Leagues, but it also brought to a head the troubles which had long
been simmering between them and the House of Austria. During
many years the Counts of the Tyrol had been encroaching on
the rights of the Bishop of Coire (based on donations in the
ninth and tenth centuries by the Emperors) in three districts
— the Lower Engadine, the Vintschgau or upper valley of the
Adige, and the Miinster valley, a tributary glen of the
Vintschgau. By 1282 the Lower Engadine was recognised by

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 121

the bishop as being in Tyrol, and to a certain extent the
Vintschgau also. Of course, when in 1363 the Habsburgers
succeeded to the Tyrol, they were able to press even harder
on the infant Leagues. Finally, the Habsburgers, in the person
of the Emperor Maximilian (who had received Tyrol in 1490
from the last representative of the cadet branch of his house),
attacked the Miinster valley in May 1499, desiring to force the
Rsetian Leagues and also the Swiss Confederation to recognise
the jurisdiction of the newly created Imperial Chamber as the
Supreme Imperial Tribunal. But this enterprise was brought
to nought by the great Swiss and Rfetian victory in the Calven
gorge (in the lower bit of the Miinster valley), and by the Peace
of Bale (Sept. 1499) the Emperor had to recognise that the Swiss
and Rsetian Leagues were practically independent of the Empire,
and not subject to the Imperial Chamber. But though this
treaty settled the political matters at issue, the rights of the
Habsburgers as lords of the manor in the contested districts
gave rise to many and irritating quarrels. Hence, when by
the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) the legal independence of the
Swiss and Raetian Leagues was formally acknowledged by the
Emperor, it seemed a favourable opportunity for settling the
other claims as well. Thus the Austrian rights in '' , "Ten
Jurisdictions' were bought up in 1649-1652, and those in
the Lower Engadine in 1652, but on the other land, the
Bishop of Coire formally renounced in 1665 his claims in the
Vintschgau (which had been practically lost since 1609). All
rights of the Rstian Leagues in the Miinster valley were
practically lost after 1526 (when the temporal jurisdiction of
the Bishop of Coire in the Raetian Leagues was abolished),
though after protracted negotiations they succeeded formally in
1762 (practically in 1748) in purchasing the upper portion (above
Taufers) from Austria, to which it had been sold (with Taufers)
in 1734 by the Bishop of Coire (a Tyrolese by birth). In
this way the Swiss regained the command of the Umbrail Pass.

Thus while the Raetian Leagues, in the case of these con-
tested territories, obtained the Prattigau, Davos, the Lower
Engadine, and a part of the Miinster valley, they had to give up

122 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the Vintschgau, which, after all, is within the natural limits of
the Tyrol, as the Adige valley is physically quite distinct from
that of the upper Inn or the Engadine.

In 1799-1801 the Three Leagues of Rsetia (which, in 1797,
as mentioned above, had lost their Italian bailiwicks) became
the Canton of Rsetia in the Helvetic Republic, while in 1803,
under the name of the Canton of the Grisons or Graubiinden,
they were admitted full members of the reconstituted Swiss
Confederation.

But it was only in the early years of the nineteenth century
that two Austrian islands or 'enclaves' in Rsetia became Swiss
— those of Tarasp and Rhazuns.

Tarasp, in the Lower Engadine, had a castle which dominates
Schuls in the main valley of the Inn, and so is of strategical
importance. It passed from its local lords into the possession
of the Bishops of Coire in the twelfth century, but they gave
it at once to a family which in 1239 sold it to the Count of
Tyrol (that county was not yet in the hands of the Habsburgers).
He bestowed it as a fief on the powerful Matsch family, from
which Sigismund of Austria bought it in 1464. After the
Lower Engadine had been sold to the R^etian Leagues in
1652, the Habsburgers alienated (1687) the lordship of Tarasp
to the Dietrichstein family, which held it till 1801. Then it
was ceded by Austria at the Peace of Luneville to France,
which in 1803 gave it to the Swiss Confederation, from
which it passed, in 1809, to the Canton of the Grisons. Thus
after passing through many hands Tarasp became at last Swiss,
but it is no doubt owing to the fact that it was for so long an
outpost of Tyrol that the parish is now the only one in the
Lower Engadine that is mainly inhabited by Romanists.

Rhdzu7is had an even more singular history. The castle
stands near the junction of the Hinter and of the Vorder
Rhine, and a little S.W, of Coire, so that it is very important
from the military point of view. We hear of it already in 960,
though its lords are first mentioned in 11 39. In 1251 the
family appears under the name of Brun, and made it the centre
of its very extensive possessions, acquired by purchase in the

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 123

neighbourhood. The direct male Une of the family became
extinct in 1458, when Rhazuns passed to the Count of Zollern,
the nephew of the last lord. The new owners, however, mort-
gaged it in 1473 (or 1490) to the lord of Marmels (around
Molins, on the way to the Julier Pass), who exchanged it in
1497 with Maximilian of Austria for another lordship in Swabia,
though the mortgage was not bought up by the Habsburgers
till 1549. But hardly had they finally secured Rhazuns when
in 1558 they mortgaged the lordship in their turn to the great
Engadine family of Planta, and in 1586 sold it outright to that
family, reserving the option of repurchasing it at some future
date. This option was exercised by the Emperor Leopold i. in
1695, when the lordship became definitively Austrian, and so a
great eyesore to the Rsetian Leagues. But by the disastrous Peace
of Presburg (1805) Napoleon compelled Austria to cede Rhazuns
to his ally Bavaria, though in 1809 Bavaria was forced to hand
it over to France. Finally, the Congress of Vienna (1815) made
over our lordship to the restored Canton of the Orisons, which
still holds it. It was only actually handed over in 18 19, when
the fear of Austria and of the Habsburgers passed away for ever.
Thus by the irony of fate these two Austrian 'enclaves'
passed through the hands of France before they became Swiss.
Rhazuns, too, is singular in this respect, that it never belonged
to the Rsetian Leagues at all, though situated nearly on the
boundary between the 'Upper League' and the 'League of
God's House.'

3. THE EASTERN ALPS

(From the Reschen Scheideck to the
Radstadter Tauern)

(i) The political history of this region of the Alps is all but
entirely made up of the gradual absorption by the powerful family
of the Habsburgers of many smaller states and principalities,
while but little attention need be paid to the varying fortunes

124 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

of the House of Bavaria, whose domains lay N.W. of those of
the Habsburgers. To us the interesting point of this history
is that the Habsburgers secured both slopes of all the great
mountain passes in the Eastern Alps, save the W. slope of the
Tonale and the Stelvio, which only became Italian in 1859
(Austria had held them from 18 14 onwards), and the S. slope
of the Plocken or Monte Croce Pass (held from 1 797-1805 and
1814-1866), lost in 1866 to Italy.

In tracing out the rise and growth of the House of Habsburg
we have to distinguish between at least three phases, which
may be roughly ticketed as the 'Swiss Phase,' the 'Austrian
Phase,' and the 'Venetian Phase,' these terms simply serving
to bring out the characteristic feature of each period in the
story (so far as regards the Alps) of this, the greatest of still
reigning Continental royal dynasties.

A.— The 'Swiss Phase'

Of course the Habsburgers never ruled (though they remained
landowners) in any portion of the Swiss Confederation, after it
had become Swiss. The Habsburgers 'created' the League
because it came into being to resist them, but, after any par-
ticular district had become a member of the Confederation,
the Habsburgers retained no political rights over it, though
they might continue to be lords of the manor and landowners
therein. It is desirable to grasp this state of things very clearly,
for there was a time when the Habsburgers ruled in certain
regions, now included within the boundaries of Switzerland,
but that time was before they had entered on the Austrian (or
more strictly the Tyrolese) phase of their career.

The Habsburgers began in a small way, first in Upper Alsace
or the Sundgau (on the left bank of the Rhine), and gradually
extended their power to the Black Forest. About 1020 one of
the members of the family, Werner, Bishop of Strassburg, built
the castle of Habsburg, on a commanding height above the
lower valley of the Aar, and not very far from the point at
which that mightiest of Swiss rivers is swollen first by the

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 125

Reuss and soon after by the Limmat or Linth. This castle-
building shows that the family must have then struck root in
the Aargau. In 1 1 24 its head appears to be (as he certainly
is in 1 1 35) the ruler (landgrave) of Upper Alsace, though he
then takes his title of count (which occurs first in 1114) not
from the Sundgau, but from his Argovian castle of Habsburg.
In 1 1 73, on the extinction of the Counts of Lenzburg (whose
castle rises a little to the S. of that of Habsburg), our family
succeeded them in the countship of the Ziirichgau. But it was
not till 1264 that the inheritance of the Lenzburgs in lands,
etc., came (by a lucky marriage, the first recorded of many
such) to the Habsburgers, for it had previously to pass through
the hands of the Counts of Kyburg (the castle of this name is
S. of Winterthur). This huge accession of wealth raised the
Habsburgers to the first rank among the various feudal lord-
lings who were then struggling for supremacy in what now form
the northern and central portions of Switzerland. This position,
and the soldier-like qualities of the then head of the house,
Rudolf, helped, with other causes, to bring about his election as
Emperor in 1273, while in 1282 the Habsburgers for the first
time came into possession of Austria. No doubt such further
accessions of power and dignity induced Rudolf to attempt to
increase his territories in what may be called his native
land — what was later to be central Switzerland. In a preceding
section we have noted how his purchase of Lucerne (April 16,
1 291) was followed by his death (July 15) and the formation of
the first Everlasting League (August i). It was high time indeed
that some stop should be put to the rapid and ever-advancing
progress of the Habsburgers. A glance at an historical atlas will
show that about 131 5 the Habsburgers ruled over a huge band of
land in Central Switzerland, which extended from the W. shore
of the Lake of Constance, in a S.W. direction, leaving the
imperial city Zurich on the E., and that of Berne on the W., but
taking in Lucerne, as well as the Entlebuch to its S. ; it
included, besides, Thun and the upper valley of the Aar (save
Hasle), that is, the chief valleys of the Bernese Oberland,
which really belonged to the house of Austin Canons of Inter-

126 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

laken, of which the Habsburgers became 'protectors' in 13 18
for a few years, when Berne succeeded them. It is in one
of these valleys, that of Grindelwald, that these lines are being
written on a bit of land, named Diirrenberg, which belonged to
the Habsburgers as late as 1331, when they parted with it to the
Canons, But before that date the Habsburger power in Central
Switzerland had begun to wane. The battle of Morgarten (13 15)
secured the Three Lands of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden from
any further political dangers at the hands of the Habsburgers,
while in 1332 Lucerne, on its entrance into the League (though
the Entlebuch was only bought in 1405 by Lucerne from the
Habsburgers), was lost to the family. In 1384 Thun and Burg-
dorf were purchased by Berne from the cadet line of the House
of Habsburg, and in 1386 the victory of Sempach struck a further
blow at Habsburg power, while in 1388 that of Nafels secured
Glarus to the Confederation, as well as Zug (both had entered
it in 1352). The Aargau (including the ancestral castle) was
lost in 14 1 5 to the Confederation as a whole or to Berne
alone, in 1452 the county of Kyburg was seized by Ziirich, in
1458 that of Rapperswil successfully sought the protection
(definitively given in 1464) of four members of the Confedera-
tion, in 1460 the rich plains of the Thurgau were wrested by the
Confederation from the once powerful family, and finally in
1467 the town of Winterthur was sold to Zurich. Of their
ancient possessions in what is now Switzerland the Habsburgs
retained the Frick valley (S. of Laufenburg, on the Rhine) till
1801, when it was given to France, which ceded it in 1802 to
Switzerland. We have noted above the fortunes of the two
islands (acquired by the Habsburgers in 1464 and 1497 respec-
tively) of Tarasp and Rhazuns in the Orisons, as well as the
later sales of the Prattigau (1649- 165 2) and the Lower Engadine
(1652), though these properly belonged to the 'Austrian' phase
of the Habsburgers.

Thus by 1500 the Habsburgers had practically passed out
of and beyond their ' Swiss ' phase, their course having since
1273 been set eastwards from their old home, a curious parallel
to the story of the House of Savoy. But, as we shall see

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 127

presently, the acquisition of the Tyrol (1363) and of the
Vorarlberg (1375-1394) seems to indicate an advance back
towards the west (that is, towards the Swiss Confederation),
though this advance is but faintly outlined, and was checked
for good in 1499 by the battle of the Calven gorge.

B. — The 'Austrian Phase'

In order to explain how the Habsburgers got ' Austria ' it is
necessary to consider, as briefly as possible, the pre-Habsburger
history of the Alpine lands which are roughly included under
the term of ' Austria.'

In 788 Charles the Great incorporated the territory of the
Baioarii into his Empire. It later formed part of the East
Prankish kingdom^ but early in the tenth century we find that
it was governed by a set of native and most unruly dukes, who
were practically sovereign, and at best nominally subject to
the German kings. Even Otto i., powerful as he was, did not
venture to do more than hand over (948) the duchy to his own
brother, whom he had married to a daughter of the native duke.
But troubles still prevailed in the duchy, first between the new
dynasty and the old one, then between the new dynasty (which
became more Irish than the Irish) and the German kings.
Finally, Otto 11., in and about 976, introduced great changes as
to the Bavarian duchy and its holders, for it had become very
unwieldy, as it extended from the Lech to the Leitha, E. of
Vienna, thus including practically the whole of the Eastern
Alps. The duchy itself was given to Otto's nephew and friend.
Otto, Duke of Swabia. But this new duchy had been shorn
of its fair proportions by the creation of a set of ' marks ' or
' marchlands ' (border-lands) on the N., the E., and the S.
We need not trouble ourselves here with the North Mark, which
has nothing to do with the Alps, and was an outpost against the
Bohemians. More important to us is the erection of Carinthia,
or the South Mark, into a separate duchy, to which was annexed
the Mark of Verona, that had belonged to the great Bavarian
duchy since 952, when it had been taken from the kingdom of

128 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Italy, after the defeat of King Berengar ii. Further, the lands
to the E. of the old Bavarian duchy, which had been won from
the Magyars in 955 by the battle on the Lech, were separated
from the Bavarian duchy, and made into the East Mark — the
future ' Austria' in the strict sense. These two new ' Marks ' or
outposts against the Magyars on the E. were put (976) by Otto
into safe hands, Carinthia and Verona going to Henry, the son
of a former Bavarian duke, and husband of Willetrud, Otto 11. 's
first cousin, while the East Mark was committed to the charge
of Leopold of Babenberg, brother of the Berchtold who ruled
in the North Mark (the two brothers being special favourites
of Otto II.). The diminished duchy of Bavaria thus stretched,
from 976 onwards, only from the Lech to the sources of the
Enns and of the Mur ; its mountainous districts (which alone
concern us here) thus included the whole of the future Tyrol
and Salzburg, as well as the E. bit of the Bavarian Highlands.

Now, in course of time, all these districts (save the North
Mark and the Bavarian Highlands) came into the hands of the
Habsburgers. In order to make a rather complicated series of
events as clear as possible to my readers, it will be most con-
venient to consider them briefly under three heads — first, the
East Mark, as that gave the name of House of Austria to the
Habsburgers ; then the South Mark, or Carinthia (with its
satellites of Carniola and Styria) ; and finally the Tyrolese, or
S. portion of the Bavarian duchy (as constituted in 976), which
will lead us on naturally to the story of the Bavarian Highlands,
or the N. half of that reconstituted duchy.

{a) The East Mark, or Austria (Oesterreich). — Leopold of
Babenberg had already, in 974, received from Otto 11. the
government of the East Mark, but in 976 he seems to have
obtained increased power, and independence of the duchy of
Bavaria, though some writers hold that for yet a while the
Bavarian Dukes had some sort of undefined supremacy over the
East Mark. This, however, disappeared in course of time, and
the Babenberg dynasty (which takes its name from a castle near

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 129

Bamberg, the name of that town being a mere variation of that
of the castle) ruled in the East Mark, with varying fortunes, till
the extinction of the male line in 1246. It seems odd nowa-
days to associate with Austria any name other than that of the
Habsburgers, but they, with their usual good fortune, simply
entered upon other men's labours, gaining all the profit and
advantage, without much trouble to themselves. In 1156
Austria was raised to the rank of a duchy (it became an arch-
duchy only long afterwards, in 1453), while in 1192 (by an
arrangement made in 1186) the Mark oi Styria (Steiermark) —
which in 1035 had been cut off from Carinthia, and in 1056 had
come to the Counts of Steier, or Steyr, a castle near the junction
of the river of that name with the Enns — was inherited by the
Babenbergers on the extinction of the male line of its rulers,
who had assumed the title of duke in 11 80. After the failure
of the male line of the Babenbergers in 1246, a time of confusion
followed, as the last duke left only a sister. The Emperor
Frederick 11. ruled in Austria from 1246 till his death at the
close of 1250, when the land was occupied (12 51) by the
Slavonic prince, Ottakar, who, in 1253, succeeded his father as
king of Bohemia, and became the second husband, in 1252
(her first had been Frederick's son, Henry), of Margaret, the
only surviving sister of the last Babenberger. It was not, how-
ever, till 1 259-1 260 that Ottakar was able to wrest Styria (save a
bit in its N. region, the Plittner Mark, which had been got in
1254 from Hungary by Austria) from Bela iv., the Magyar king
of Hungary. In 1269 Ottakar, by virtue of an arrangement,
succeeded, on the extinction of the male line of its dukes, to
the duchy of Carinthia (Karnthen), as well as to the county of
Carniola (Krain), which, practically cut off from Carinthia about
1040, had had to struggle for its independence against the
Patriarchs of Aquileia, and the Bishops of Brixen and Freising :
the last duke-count (who had won the day against the Patriarchs
in 1261 and died in 1269) had married the divorced wife of the
last of the Babenbergers, and had instituted Ottakar as his
heir.

Thus Ottakar had got into his hands a number of provinces
I

I30 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

(Austria in 1251, Styria in 1 259-1 260, Carinthia and Carniola in
1269), while in 1253 he had inherited the kingdom of Bohemia
as well as Moravia from his father. His position was there-
fore very threatening to the German lands to the W., for though
his dominions lay between them and the Magyar kingdom of
Hungary, yet Ottakar was the head of a Slavonic power, and so
was a menace to Western Europe. The fear of this powerful
monarch was one of the main reasons which brought about
the election of Rudolf of Habsburg in 1273 to the Empire, and
this choice was soon justified. Already in 1276 Ottakar (who
had been Rudolf's rival for the imperial crown in 1273) was
forced to renounce his domains of Austria, Styria, Carinthia,
and Carniola in favour of Rudolf, and to consent to hold
Bohemia and Moravia as fiefs from the Empire. But Ottakar
could not bring himself to give up finally his splendid realm
without a further struggle, in which, however, he was defeated in
the battle of the Marchfeld, near Vienna (1278), losing his life
as well as his dominions. He had thus prepared the way for
the Habsburgers, who, by this victory, became the practical as
well as nominal kings of Germany, to which, too, they had
brought a vast accession of territory, wrung from the advancing
Slavonic race, though henceforth to remain both German and
Austrian. But Rudolf did not long keep these conquered
lands in his own hands, for in 1282 he invested his two sons
(in 1283 he gave all to the elder) with the lands he had won
for Germany. However, in order to satisfy a powerful neighbour
(of whom we shall have to speak again presently), Meinhard 11.,
Count of the Tyrol, who had helped much to defeat Ottakar,
and whose daughter, Elisabeth, had in 1276 married Rudolf's
son and successor, Albert, Rudolf had in 1286 to give him
Carinthia and Carniola, stipulating, however, that should
Meinhard's male posterity ever fail, the Habsburgers were to
have the right of succession. This event took place in 1335,
on the death of Henry, Meinhard's son, so that Albert 11.,
Albert of Habsburg's son (he himself had been murdered in
1308) then added these lands permanently to the Habsburgers'
inheritance of Austria and Styria.

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 131

(i>) The South Mark, or CarintMa. — It was simpler to speak
of the fortunes of this district from 1269 to 1335 i^ the preced-
ing section, as during that period it was becoming ' Austrian ' or
part of the Habsburger inheritance. But in order to complete
our account we must sketch briefly the history of this South
Mark from 976 to 1269.

In 976, as we have seen, this Mark, raised to the rank of
a duchy and united with the Mark of Verona, was cut off from
the old duchy of Bavaria, though it was twice reunited with it
for short intervals before 1002, when it was finally separated
from it. It passed through many hands in the course of the
eleventh century, mainly those of local rulers, save the Emperor
Conrad 11. (1036-9). But during that century it had been cut
short in many directions. Styria had parted off in 1035, and
Carniola about 1040, while by the time of the death of Otto 11.
(983) the temporal powers of rhe Patriarchs of Aquileia had so
increased that they had become masters of the E. portion (the
history of the W. portion will be sketched below under
Section C, The 'Venetian Phase'), which gradually acquired
the name of Friuli. Hence the name of Markgraf of Verona
was a mere empty title when in 1061 it came to the House of
Zaringen, and from it to that of Baden. Meanwhile the duchy
of Carinthia itself had passed through the local dynasties of
Eppenstein (1012-1122) and Sponheim (1122-1269). By 1261
the last duke had established his independence as against the
Patriarchs of Aquileia, and on his death (1269) his dominions
(which included Carniola by virtue of his marriage with the
widow of the last of the Babenbergers, d. 1246), passed by
virtue of his testament to Ottakar, king of Bohemia, whence
they came (as above noted) first in 1278, then 1282-6, and
finally in 1335 to the Habsburgers.

(c) The Tyrol. — The half-ruined castle of Tyrol still stands
on the heights to the N.W. of Meran, in the upper valley of the
Adige or the Vintschgau. But it is not till about 1140 that we

132 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

first hear of ' a count of the Tyrol.' These counts became the
heirs of other feudal lords the power of which had gradually
grown up in the S. portion of the Bavarian duchy of 976. In 1027
the Emperor Conrad 11. took a step which decided the future
fortunes of this region — he granted all temporal powers in the
district S. of the Brenner Pass, in the neighbourhood of Botzen,
and in the Vintschgau (that is, in the whole of the upper Adige
valley from a short distance below the town of Trent), to the
Bishop of Trent (the see dates from the early fifth century),
who thus obtained a very great position, while practically his wide
lands then ceased to be Italian, and became part of the German
kingdom. At the same date Conrad conferred similar temporal
jurisdiction, in the Eisack valley (just S. of the Brenner Pass) and
in the Inn valley (N. of that pass), on the Bishop of Brixen (the
see had been founded at the end of the eighth century at Saben,
on the cliffs above the Eisack valley, some way below the town
of Brixen, to which it was transferred about 992). These two
bishops thus kept guard over the great highway of the Brenner
Pass, by far the most important in the Eastern Alps. But the
bishops themselves could not exercise in person the extensive
temporal rights which had been conferred upon them. They
sought lay nobles to whom to intrust their responsibilities. For
the N. portion of his realm the Bishop of Trent selected his
'protectors,' the Counts of the Tyrol (first mentioned in 1140), to
whom also the Bishop of Brixen committed the Eisack valley; the
Bishop of Brixen chose the Count of Andechs (a castle S.W. of
Munich), who was the ' protector ' of the bishopric, and besides
already possessed many estates in the region subject to the
bishop. The family of Andechs held, in particular, the Inn
valley, just above Innsbruck, and in 1152 received from the
bishop that portion of the same valley which is around Inns-
bruck. Through an heiress they obtained about 11 70 the
marquessate of Istria, while their ever-increasing lands in those
parts won them about 1180 the dignity of Dukes of Merania
(that is, of the coast-land, near the sea or ' mare,' the name
having nothing to do with the town of Meran). The House of
Andechs became extinct in the male line in 1248, when its Inn

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 133

and Eisack valley fiefs reverted to the Bishop of Brixen. Now
the last of the Andechs line had married Elisabeth, the younger
daughter of Albert i., Count of the Tyrol, and so naturally the
bishop granted to the Count of the Tyrol the fiefs which had just
fallen vacant. Until then, and for some time yet, there is not
the slightest connection between the Tyrol and the Habsburgers,

THE TYROL AND THE HABSBURGERS
Albert i., Count of the Tyrol.

Adelaide,
Inh. the Tyrol, 1253,

d. 1275.
m. Meinhard l.
Count of Gbrz,
d. 1258.

Meinhard ii.
(Tyrol),
d. 1295.

Henry,

d- 1335.

m. Anne of

Bohemia.

Margaret
(Maultasch)
d. 1369.

I

Meinhard hi.,

d. 1363.

Albert ii.

(Gorz), d. 1304,

Inh. 1500 by the

Habsburgers.

Elisabeth,
(i) Otto, last of
the Andechs
dynasty.
(2) Gebhard ii.,
Count of
Hirschberg.

I
Gebhard hi.

Elisabeth,

m., 1276, Albert i.

of Habsburg.

I
Albert il,

Inh. Carinthia, 1335,
d. 1358.

I

Rudolf iv.,

Inh. the Tyrol,

1363-

though their turn is coming soon. Elisabeth's elder sister,
Adelaide, had married Meinhard i. , Count of Gorz, a land far
away to the S., and a little N. of Trieste and Aquileia. Adelaide
brought (1253) the Tyrol to her husband (as she and her
sister were the co-heiresses of their father), who also obtained in
1284 the Inn valley from the sole child of Elisabeth. On the
death of Meinhard i. (1258) his two sons divided his territories;

134 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the elder, Meinhard ii. (who in 1284 obtained the Inn valley
from the only child of Elisabeth, and in 1286 the duchy of
Carinthia and county of Carniola from Rudolf of Habsburg, as
a reward for help at the battle of the Marchfeld in 1278 against
Ottakar, king of Bohemia), took the Tyrol ; while his younger
brother, Albert, succeeded to the county of Gorz (as we shall
see later, on the failure of this Albert's line, Gorz came to
the heirs of the elder line, in 1500, and those heirs were the
Habsburgers). Now Meinhard 11. had two children with whom
we have to do. The son, Henry, married Anne, the grand-
daughter of Ottakar 11., and so became king of Bohemia for a
short time (1307-13 10), while Meinhard's daughter, Elisabeth,
married Albert of Habsburg (Rudolf's son). Henry's only child
was Margaret, known as ' Margaret Pocket Mouth ' (Maul-
tasch), who succeeded her father on his death (1335) in the
county of the Tyrol, while the duchy of Carinthia passed to
the Habsburgers, in the person of Albert's son, who was
Margaret's first cousin. Margaret had two husbands, but only
a single child (Meinhard iii.), on whose death in 1363 (after a
reign of two years) a struggle seemed imminent for the succession
to his domains. But only two weeks after her son's death,
Margaret solemnly promised the Habsburgers (to whom, in
1359, she had bequeathed her domains, in case of the extinction
of her line) that they should have her realms at her death, and
that till then she would reign in their name. She at the same
time ordered her subjects to swear allegiance to the Habs-
burgers. But they still feared that they might lose the splendid
prize. Hence later in 1363 they put pressure on Margaret to
abdicate, and (in return for the cession of certain places for the
rest of her life, and a pension) she gave way to their importun-
ities. She retired to Vienna, and there ended her days in
1369, at the age of 51 years.

One can easily understand the longing of the Habsburgers
for the Tyrol. Its topographical position astride the Alps, and
commanding both sides of the principal pass in the region,
gave to its masters an enormous influence, and enabled them
to block, at will, the direct route from Germany to Italy, Of

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 135

Margaret's two husbands the former had belonged to the power-
ful House of Luxemburg, which held the Empire from 13 12
to 1437, with two short breaks (1328-1347 and 1400-1410), as
well as Bohemia from 13 10 to 1457 : the second was a member
of a not less powerful Bavarian house, which held the Empire
from 1328 to 1347 (in the person of Margaret's father-in-law),
and whose domains were uncomfortably near those of the
Habsburgers. The possession of the Tyrol also enabled the
Habsburgers to make an attempt to advance back towards the
W. towards their original homes. That scheme was (as we
have noted above) stopped in 1499 by the Swiss victory at the
battle of the Calven gorge. But it had been more dangerous
than might appear at first sight, for in 1375 the Habsburgers
had bought Feldkirch in the Rhine valley from the Counts of
Montfort, and in 1394 Bludenz and the Montafon valley from
the Counts of Werdenberg, while in 145 1 and 1523 they acquired
the county of Bregenz from the Werdenberg family. All these
acquisitions (which are commonly grouped under the name of
the Vorarlberg) meant the command of the Arlberg Pass, lead-
ing directly from Innsbruck to the Rhine valley at Feldkirch,
thus at once threatening St. Gall, Appenzell, and Coire. Here
the danger to the Swiss Confederation and its allies was averted
in 1405 by the glorious victory of the Stoss (in Appenzell, on
the heights by which one goes from Altstatten in the Rhine
valley to Appenzell and St. Gall): in 141 1 Appenzell, and in
1454 St. Gall, were received as 'allies' of the Swiss Con-
federation ; the Thurgau (to their N.W.) conquered from the
Habsburgers in 1460, and Winterthur acquired in 1467.
Towards the S. of Feldkirch the situation was secured (as we
have already shown) by the gradual formation of the Three
Rstian Leagues (1367, 1395, and 1436), while the purchase
of all remaining Habsburger rights in the Prattigau (just S. of
the Montafon valley) in 1649- 165 2, and in the Lower Engadine
in 1652, made the Swiss Confederation quite secure against its
old foe. He had long pressed it on the N. and the E., and had
renewed his attacks (think of Morgarten in 13 15, of Sempach
in 1386, and of Nafels in 1388) after he had vastly increased

136 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

his power by the acquisition of these wide lands of ' Austria '
— namely Austria proper, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and the
Tyrol, while he had held the imperial crown from 1273 onwards,
save between 1308 and 1438.

More success attended the efforts of the Habsburgers to
estabHsh their sole rule in the Tyrol. These took place chiefly
in the reign of Maximilian (Emperor from 1493 to 1519, and
grandfather of Charles v.). In 1500 he succeeded to the county
of Gorz by virtue of an arrangement made with the last counts,
his kinsmen. This inheritance meant far more than the mere
addition of that county to his domains, for the counts held also
the whole of the Pusterthal from Lienz to near the Eisack valley,
above Brixen. Now the Pusterthal offers the direct route from
Carinthia to the Brenner road, and it commands the Ampezzo
Pass leading S. from Toblach towards Venice. Hence the
possession of this region by another family (even if connected
by ties of blood) was very inconvenient for the Habsburgers,
who, without it, were debarred from all communications between
Carinthia and the Brenner route, save by a huge detour towards
N. round the snowy crest of the Tauern and Zillerthal Alps, or
by another, even more roundabout, to the S. of the Dolomites.
These two lofty ranges enclose the Pusterthal on the N. and
the S. respectively, and thus enhance its importance as the great
highway from Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria, to the true and
original Tyrol, to the middle Inn valley, and to the upper Adige
and Eisack valleys.

In 1505 (formally in 1507) Maximilian made other acquisitions
in the Tyrol, this time from the House of Bavaria, which had
been torn by a disputed succession. These included the fortress
and the lordship of Kufstein, as well as the lordships of Kitzbiihel,
and of Rattenberg, with the Bavarian portion of the Zillerthal.
These districts had belonged to Margaret Maultasch in right
of her second husband, and had been handed over to her on
her abdication, with reversion to the House of Bavaria. Hence
Maximilian was only too eager to secure them, after they had
once so narrowly missed his family, for, lying to the N.E.
and E. of Innsbruck, they command the exit from Innsbruck

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 137

towards the plains. Now the Habsburgers had the whole of
the routes over the Brenner and over the Arlberg in their own
hands, while the Tyrolese frontier towards the N.E. was also
well secured against those troublesome Bavarian neighbours.

As we have noted more than once, Maximilian was unsuccess-
ful (1499) in his attempt to extend the power of his house
towards the W. But to his successes towards the E. (1500)
and the N.E. (1505) he added others to the S., which naturally
carry us on to the third great phase through which the history
of the Habsburgers in the Alps has passed.

C. — The 'Venetian Phase'

The old Mark of Verona, which in 952 had been separated
from Italy in order to be united to the duchy of Bavaria, and
in 976 was transferred to that of Carinthia, had by the eleventh
century been shorn of its fair proportions (it originally stretched
from the Lake of Garda to the Isonzo). On the W. the
bishopric of Trent had in 1027 been cut off from Italy to form
an ecclesiastical principality, which was politically German,
while on the E. the Patriarch of Aquileia had succeeded in
establishing his power over Friuli as a temporal ruler. The
central portion of the old Mark therefore was all that remained
(its S. bit gradually took the more modest name of March of
Treviso), and practically again became a part of Italy and no
longer of Germany. The Alpine portions of this remnant of
the old Mark of Verona passed, after the final break-up of the
Empire in 1250, into the possession of the Scala family of
Verona, which extended their rule to Vicenza, Belluno, Feltre,
etc., so that by the early fourteenth century they were practically
supreme in these parts. But this predominance was threatened
on the S.E. by the Carraras of Padua, and on the W. by the
Visconti of Milan. In 1388 the Scala rule (which had lasted
about one hundred and tnirty years) came to an end, the domains
of that family passing to the Visconti, who tricked the Carraras
out of the share promised to them. But after the death of Gian
Galeazzo Visconti in 1402 the power of his family was broken

138 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

for a time. The Carraras at once seized on Verona. But this
excited the jealousy of the great state which had been steadily
increasing in influence and authority in these regions, and
was soon to swallow up all these striving families. In 1339
Venice had set foot on the mainland by its acquisition of
Treviso and the March of that name. Now, in the struggle
following Gian Galeazzo's death, it saw its opportunity, and it
must be said that the Venetians made good use of the chance
offered to them. In 1404 they occupied Vicenza and the
neighbouring region of Belluno aud Feltre (which from the
tenth century had been governed by their bishops till these
were replaced in 132 1-2 by the Scala family), while in 1405
they laid hands upon Verona also. It is true that Belluno
and Feltre were lost in 141 1 to Sigismund, king of Hungary,'
(the later Emperor), but they were won again in 1420, and
henceforth formed part of the Venetian dominions. Stimulated
by these first successes, Venice brought under her rule the
whole of Friuli (1418-1420), the Patriarchs of Aquileia being
obliged to content themselves henceforth with being spiritual
princes. Next, in 1426, Venice pushed on to the W., and
occupied Brescia, while in 1428 she added Bergamo and its
region. Her rule thus extended from the lower course of the
Adda to near the course of the Isonzo.

To us who are paying special attention to the history of the
Alps, the most interesting point about these conquests by
Venice is how they affected some of the villages in the Eastern
Alps which, of late, have become well known to travellers —
such as Primiero, Caprile, and Cortina d'Ampezzo, two of which
are Austrian (Tyrolese) at present, while Caprile alone is Italian.

Primiero long belonged to the Bishops of Feltre, but the
discovery of iron mines near by led many persons to try to
secure it for themselves, as lords under the suzerainty of the
bishops. In 1355 the Emperor Charles iv. erected Primiero
into a separate lordship, which passed (with Feltre) in 1363 to
the Carraras of Padua. In 1373 this family ceded it (with
Feltre) to the Habsburgers, who had recently become Counts of
the Tyrol. However, in 1384 the new owners gave back Feltre

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 139

(as we saw above it became Venetian in 1404) to the Carraras,
but reserved the lordship of Primiero, which was thus cut off
from Feltre, and became part of the Tyrol. In 1401 they
granted the district (with the stronghold of Castello della Pietra,
destroyed by fire in 1675, the ruins being now inaccessible save
by employing artificial means) to their chamberlain, George of
Welsperg, whose descendants exercised jurisdiction there till
1827, and still inhabit the region. Such is the way in which
Primiero became Tyrolese, though one would naturally have
expected it to become Venetian, and so Italian.

Caprile, however, did become Venetian, and later Italian.
It has always formed part of the district of Agordo, which
belonged for centuries to the Bishop of Belluno (this see was
united with that of Feltre in 1197, separated from it in 1462,
and reunited to it in 181 8). In the course of time the bishop's
power became enfeebled, and he was replaced by a rapid
succession of lords till in 1360 the district came to the Carraras
of Padua. It was in the hands of the Habsburgers (as Counts
of the Tyrol) from 1384 to 1386, but was lost (with all their
lands) by the Carraras in 1388 to the Visconti. They held it
till 1402, and in 1404 Agordo, with Caprile, was taken by the
Venetians at the same time as Belluno and Feltre. The
Tyrolese frontier is, of course, only a little way from Caprile at
the present day, because the upper portion of the Cordevole
valley (called Buchenstein) belonged to the Bishop of Brixen
(that is, to the Tyrol), and so has had a history entirely different
from those of Caprile and of Agordo.

The case of Cortifia and the Ampezzo valley is utterly dis-
similar. In 1500 the Habsburgers inherited, as part of the
county of Gorz, the Pusterthal, and so Toblach, with the valley
running up S. to the Ampezzo Pass. The other side of the
pass (with, therefore, complete command of the great highway
from the Tyrol to Venice) was occupied for a while in 1509,
though only definitively acquired in 15 17, forming part of the
spoils won by Maximilian of Habsburg from Venice (which, in
1420 had taken it from Aquileia, to whom it had belonged since
1335) at the end of the war of the League of Cambray.

I40 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Hence it is that though Primiero, Caprile, and Cortina are
all on the S. slope of the Alpine chain, and so might be
expected to be all now Italian, and Venetian in the past, this
is really the case with Caprile alone, for Primiero was never
Venetian, and Cortina was early lost to Venice. Yet, as every
traveller in the Dolomites knows, the political frontier passes,
to this day, quite close to all three spots, for by an historical
accident two of them belong to a German-speaking state, though
in each Italian is the mother-tongue of the inhabitants.

An early conquest of Venetian territory by the Habsburgers
was that of the lower Val Sugana (which joins, at Primolano,
the Primiero valley), taken by them in 141 3, though nominally
held till 1670 under the suzerainty of the Bishop of Feltre.
Besides Ampezzo, Maximilian in 15 17 obtained from Venice
(he had occupied them in 1509) the towns of Roveredo and
Ala (later, in 1576, given to the Bishop of Trent, when the
Habsburgers formally acknowledged the temporal ' principality of
Trent '), together with some neighbouring villages, all S. of Trent
in the Adige valley. These acquisitions of 15 17, together with
Ampezzo valley and the Val Sugana, were formed (15 18) into
a district named the ' welsche Confinien ' or ' Confinen ' (that
is, the Italian-speaking border-lands). It was annexed to the
Tyrol (not to the bishopric of Trent, which, till 1803, was not
formally subject to the Habsburgers), and formed a sort of
' buffer ' region between the German-speaking Tyrol and the
Italian-speaking domains of Venice. It should, too, be borne
in mind that at that time the Trentino was not nearly as
Italianised as it is at present. From 1027 onward it had formed
a part of Germany, not of Italy, while Felix Faber, a German
pilgrim who visited the city of Trent in 1483, tells us that then
the lower city was purely German in character.

But these acquisitions by the Habsburgers at the cost of
Venice represent but nibblings at the long-coveted Venetian
dominions. By the Treaty of Campoformio (1797) Napoleon
(or, strictly speaking, the French Republic) put an end to the
independent existence of Venice as a sovereign state. The
western portion of her territory, W. of the lower Adige

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 141

(Bergamo and Brescia), was then annexed to the Cisalpine
Republic (which in 1805 became the kingdom of Italy, under
Napoleon himself), while the eastern portion (including the
Bellunese and Friuli, with Venice itself) was handed over to
the Habsburgers. But in 1805, at the Peace of Pressburg, the
Habsburgers lost these rich plains, which were annexed to
the kingdom of Italy. However, in 18 15 they recovered the
districts lost in 1805, and received, for the first time, the western
portion (Bergamo and Brescia) of the Venetian state, so that
they now held the whole of the Venetian dominions. This
accession of territory completed (for by that time, as we shall
see presently, they had also obtained the secularised bishopric
of Trent), their occupation (1814-1859) of the entire region of
the Eastern Alps, including both slopes of all the great Alpine
passes included therein. The Italian possessions of the
Habsburgers in N. Italy (the Milanese and the Veneto) were
joined together in the ' Lombardo-Venetian kingdom.' But
in 1859 the Milanese, and the western portion (Bergamo and
Brescia) of the Veneto, were lost to the king of Sardinia (in
1 86 1 to become the king of United Italy), while in 1866 the
rest of the Veneto was handed over to the new kingdom of
Italy. Thus ended the ' Venetian Phase ' of the history of
the Habsburgers. They kept only the bishopric of Trent, and
the ' welsche Confinien,' a mere fragment of their territories
between 1814 and 1859. It should be noted too that in 1866
the districts ceded by Austria were precisely those formerly
held by Venice. That is the historical reason why such
Italian spots as Aquileia, and Gorz, and (to a certain extent)
Trieste, are still Austrian, and have not become Italian,
forming (with the Trentino) what is called ' Italia Irredenta,'
though, strictly speaking, for many centuries no part of these
regions has been in Italy.

The loss in 1859 of the Bergamasca meant the loss by the
Habsburgers of the W. slope of the Tonale Pass (leading from
Trent to the head of the Val Camonica, or the Oglio valley).
In the same year they also lost to Italy the Valtelline, with
Bormio and Chiavenna (in short, the upper valley of the Adda),

142 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

which they had received in 1815 (these districts, lost to the
Grisons in 1797, had belonged, first to the Cisalpine Republic,
and then to the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy). Thus they
lost not merely the W. slope of the Stelvio Pass (from the
Tyrol to the Valtelline), over which the Austrian Govern-
ment had constructed, 1820-5, a magnificent carriage road,
the highest (9055 ft.) in the Alps, to connect two bits of their
dominions, but also both sides of the Aprica Pass (3875 ft.),
a low and very easy pass (traversed by a carriage road) which
leads from the head of the Val Camonica to the Valtelline.

With these two partial exceptions, and the S. slope of the
Plocken or Monte Croce Pass (4462 ft., from Carinthia to Friuli),
lost in 1866, the Habsburgers still hold all the great Alpine
passes in the Eastern Alps, so that our scheme of considering
that the political history of the Eastern Alps is but a portion of
that of the Habsburgers is fully justified.

The Alpine Lands of the Habsburgers during the Napoleonic

Era. — During the few but terrible years that extend from 1803
to 18 14 the lot of the Habsburgers, in their hereditary Alpine
lands (we have mentioned the fortunes of the Veneto above)
was a very chequered one. In 1801, indeed, they had been
forced to hand over to France the lordship of Tarasp in the
Lower Engadine (which France transferred in 1803 to the
Swiss Confederation), but in 1803 they had gained an
enormous accession of territory — the secularised bishoprics of
Trent and Brixen (of which the lands had so long formed
' enclaves ' in their Tyrolese possessions) as well as the arch-
bishopric of Salzburg (including the secularised priory of Austin
Canons at Berchtesgaden, founded in 1108): it was founded
in the sixth century and had been a metropolitan see since 798,
but was now secularised and made into a new electorate for
the Emperor's brother, the Archduke Ferdinand (formerly
from 1 79 1 to 1 80 1 Grand Duke of Tuscany).

But they paid bitterly for their short and disastrous war
against Napoleon in 1805, which was ended by the humiliating

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 143

Peace of Pressburg. Now they lost, and that too to their
secular enemy, Bavaria, which was the ally of Napoleon, not
merely the Tyrol (already held 1342 to 1363 by the Bavarian
second husband of Margaret Maultasch), but also the Vorarlberg,
the bishoprics of Trent and Brixen, and the lordship of Rhiizuns
in the Grisons. The one gleam of light was the annexation of
the electorate of Salzburg (which Ferdinand was compelled to
give up for the newly created grand-duchy of Wiirzburg), and
that meant much, for it included the upper Zillerthal, the
Brixenthal, and the territory of Berchtesgaden, as well as
Windisch Matrei and the Pinzgau, all regions which projected
into Tyrolese territory in a most uncomfortable way. In
1809-10, however, though the Habsburgers lost Salzburg to
Bavaria, as well as a part of Carinthia and all Carniola to the
French Empire (which added them to other districts and gave
to the conglomeration the name of the ' Illyrian Provinces '),
they had the satisfaction of seeing that Bavaria did not fare
much better, for she lost the bishopric of Trent and a bit of
that of Brixen (up to Botzen) to the Napoleonic kingdom of
Italy, as well as Rhazuns to France (it came to the Grisons in
1815). But after the fall of Napoleon the Habsburgers regained
(18 14-16) almost all their lost dominions — the Tyrol, the
Vorarlberg, Salzburg, (including the whole of the Zillerthal), the
bishoprics of Trent and Brixen (all these from Bavaria) as
well as Carniola and Carinthia (from France). One odd little
loss to Austria must, however, be recorded. By some accident,
in 1 8 14, the Austrian diplomatists, when drawing up the list
of the territories which Bavaria was to hand over to them,
forgot to mention the district of Berchtesgaden (which had
become Bavarian in 18 10); it, therefore, remains Bavarian to
this day, though it juts awkwardly into Austrian territory. Such
are the vagaries of historical geography, the study of which
clears up many puzzling territorial arrangements, which, at first
sight, seem contrary to common-sense and to any theory of
' natural frontiers,'

144 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY
(ii) The Bavarian Highlands

We must now for a moment turn our thoughts backwards in
order to consider briefly the fortunes of the duchy of Bavaria,
after, in 976, it had lost successively the East Mark, the North
Mark, and the South Mark. Its dimensions were thus much
shrunken, and continued to shrink as the power of the Bishop
of Brixen and of the Archbishop of Salzburg grew and increased,
for that meant the loss of the future Tyrol and the future
Salzburg. The duchy came back in 1002 to the German king,
who kept it till 1061 in his own hands or those of his relations.
But in 1070 it passed to the Guelfs. Henceforward its history
was much disturbed till the Emperor in 1180 dethroned Henry
the Lion, and gave the much shrunken duchy to one of his
adherents. Otto of Wittelsbach (a castle — destroyed in 1209 —
near Aichach, N.E. of Augsburg), whose descendants reign in
Bavaria to-day. This dynasty restored peace to the country,
and, though much hampered by the many lines into which
it split up, gradually won back much of the territory that had
been lost. It little by little gathered in the lands of various
noble families which became extinct, in particular in 1248, the
wide Bavarian possessions of the Counts of Andechs (whose
Tyrolese fiefs then reverted to the Bishop of Brixen). In 1255
we first hear of the division of the land into Upper Bavaria
(which alone concerns us here) and Lower Bavaria, the last
joined to the Palatinate of the Rhine. By the early fourteenth
century the Dukes of Bavaria of the new line had extended
their limits as far as the crest of the mountain chain that shuts
in, on the N., the Inn valley between Innsbruck and Landeck,
but they did not yet hold the entire N. slope of this chain.
The highest point of prosperity was reached when the duke
became, under the name of Louis iv., German king in 13 14
and Emperor in 1328 (d. 1347), for not merely did he hold his
patrimony, but also (from 1324 onwards) the North Mark (or
Brandenburg, lost to his family in 1373), while his son had also
the Tyrol (1342-1363) as the second husband of Margaret

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 145

Maultasch. But in 1505 (formally in 1507), after a war of
succession, Bavaria had to give up to the Habsburgers (as we
saw above) Kufstein, Kitzbiihel, Rattenberg, and the Bavarian
bit of the Zillerthal — these had reverted to Bavaria on the
death of Margaret Maultasch (1369), but were never held
permanently by Bavaria again, this loss meaning that of the
right bank of the Inn and of the S.E. bit of old Bavaria. Some
consolation was afforded by the elevation of Bavaria to an
Electorate in 1623, a dignity then taken from the younger or
Palatinate line of the house. In 1567 (1575) the lordship of
Hohenschwangau, E. of Fiissen) and in 1734 that of Hohen-
waldeck (E. of the Tegernsee) were acquired, thus further
completing and strengthening the S. or Alpine frontier of
Bavaria. But it was in 1803-5 that Bavaria made large pe7'-
manent additions to its territory (without taking count of the
temporary occupation of certain districts, mentioned under
the section relating to the Habsburgers in the Napoleonic era).
In 1803 it acquired the secularised bishopric of Freising (in
particular the county of Werdenfels, which included Mittenwald,
Partenkirchen, etc., and so one slope of the Zugspitze), and also
that of Augsburg (this meant for the first time an advance to
the left bank of the Lech, long the Bavarian W. frontier, and on
past Fiissen and Oberstdorf to the right bank of the lUer). In
1805, besides a royal crown (assumed on January i, 1806) and
the temporary possession of the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, etc., it per-
manently won from the Habsburgers the county of Konigsegg-
Rothenfels (on the left bank of the Iller), the lordship of Hoheneck
(with Weiler), just W. of the former, and the old Imperial Free
city of Lindau, on the N.E. shore of the Lake of Constance,
which was thus reached (though scarcely more than touched)
after many years of effort. (Let us note in passing that in 1805
Bavaria also got the old Imperial Free city of Buchhorn, on the
N.E. shore of the lake and a little to the N.W. of Lindau : but
in 1 8 10 it had to give it up to Napoleon's ally, Wiirttemberg,
whose ruler became king, like his neighbour of Bavaria, on
January i, 1806, and rechristened this acquisition in his own
honour as ' Friedrichshafen '). These acquisitions rounded off

K

146 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the Bavarian frontier towards the S.W. and the Vorarlberg, while
the retention of Berchtesgaden and its territory (got from the
Habsburgers in 1809, but not restored in 1814) completed the
Bavarian frontier at its S.E. corner.

It was thus in 1805 only that the Watzmann (8901 ft.) became
wholly Bavarian, and in 1803 that the Zugspitze (9738 ft.) attained
the honour of being (as to its E. slope at least) Bavarian, and so
now the loftiest summit within the German Empire. But to the
S.W. rises the higher Parseierspitze (9968 ft.), which is wholly
within the Tyrol (therefore Austrian), while the other two loftiest
peaks in the N. limestone ranges, the Dachstein (9830 ft.)
and the Hochkonig (9639 ft.), rise much further to the E., the
latter being wholly within the Salzburg district, while
the former is the meeting-point of Upper Austria, Salzburg, and
Styria. It will thus be seen that Bavaria, and so ' Germany '
as distinguished from ' Austria,' can claim but part of one
slope of the outermost and lowest limestone range of the Alps,
so that the plaintive lament of the German writer, quoted in
the preceding Chai)ter (p. 60), is completely justified, and even
justifiable.

Political Peaks (Eastern Alps)

At the end of the corresponding section relating to the
Central Alps, it was pointed out that E. of the Bernina Pass
the physical and the political frontiers are all but utterly distinct.
This phenomenon appears also in the Eastern Alps, and for a
similar reason, namely the annexation to the possessions of the
Habsburgers (as to Switzerland or Italy in the case of the Central
Alps) of lands which lie to the N. or S. of the great ' divide ' of
the Alps. Such are the bishoprics of Trent and of Brixen (as to
its S. portion), the archbishopric of Salzburg and the county of
Gorz (as regards the Pusterthal).

Hence from the Reschen Scheideck Pass \h& physical frontier
runs along the crest of the snowy regions of the Oetzthal,
Stubaithal, and Zillerthal ranges ; of course, the whole of each of
these groups is Austrian, though occasionally shared by two or

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 147

more provinces of that Empire. Some of the higher summits
are on the divide itself, so the Weisskugel (12,291 ft.) in the
Oetzthal group, and the Hochfeiler (11,559 ft.) in the Zillerthal
Alps. But some seem to take pleasure in rising a little way to
the N. or to the S. of the main divide. Thus the Wildspitze
(12,382 ft.) in the Oetzthal Alps, and the Zuckerhiitl (11,520
ft.) in the Stubaithal Alps, each being the loftiest in its par-
ticular region, rise N. of it.

Some geographers consider that the main divide of the Alps
E. of the Zillerthal group is formed by the Tauern range, which
is undoubtedly the loftiest ridge. Here, too, a phenomenon
similar to those already noted occurs — of its higher summits
the Dreiherrenspitze (11,500 ft) and the Gross Venediger
(12,008 ft.) rise on the divide itself, but, further E., the Gross
Glockner (12,461 ft.) stands on a spur to its S., while the Gross
Wiesbachhorn (11,713 ft.) stands on a spur to the N. of the
great divide. The name of the Dreiherrenspitze comes from
the fact that in olden days the boundaries of the Tyrol, Salzburg,
and Gorz (the Pusterthal or Carinthian bit) met on its summit,
while the Gross Venediger was so called as it also bordered on
the county of Gorz (inherited by the Habsburgers in 1500),
which occupies a portion of the territory formerly held by the
ancient Veneti, though never by the city of Venice.

Other geographers hold that the real main ridge of the Alps
follows the watershed. From the Dreiherrenspitze this dips S.,
passes over the Hochgall (11,287 ft., the highest point of the
Rieserferner group), and rejoins the political frontier a little N.E.
of the Drei Zinnen. Thence the watershed and the political fron-
tier continue in company for some time, the Monte Peralba (8829
ft), in the Carnic Alps, rising to the S. of the main ridge, on
which, however, are the two highest points of the Carnic Alps,
the Monte Coglians (9128 ft.) and the Kellerwand (9105 ft.) as
well as Monte Canin (8471 ft.) in the Julie Alps. Near the
Predil Pass and Monte Canin the main ridge (leaving the
political frontier) bears E., and rises in the Manhart (8786 ft.) and
in the Terglou (9400 ft), the culminating point of the S.E. Alps
in general), though the two loftiest summits of the Karawankas

148 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Alps, the Stou (7346 ft.) and the Grintouc (8429 ft.), are on
a great E. spur. But the political frontier (largely conventional
for historical reasons) bears S. from near the Predil Pass (N.E.
of Monte Canin), and keeping W. of Gorz, reaches the shores of
the Hadriatic a little to the W. of Aquileia.

It will thus be seen that the physical frontier leaves to the S.
the whole of the Ortler, Adamello, and Dolomite Alps, and this
for the historical reasons given above — these groups rise in the
Brixen, Trentino, or Venetian districts. Of course the political
frontier also follows (roughly speaking) a watershed, that, namely,
which from the Stelvio runs S. to the head of the Lake of Garda ;
this frontier then makes a great circle to the N,E., E., and S.E.
(to the S. are the Bellunese and Friuli, both now Italian and not
Austrian), till it passes E. of Cividale and W. of Gorz, before
reaching the coast of the Hadriatic just W, of Aquileia. But
we find that the highest summits often do not rise even on this
secondary watershed (so to call it). In the Ortler group, the
Konigsspitze (12,655 f^-) ^'^^ the Monte Cividale (12,382
ft.) do rise on it, and so are half Tyrolese and half Italian
(in the county of Bormio, so were half Swiss or in the Grisons,
151 2-1 797), but the Ortler itself (12,802 ft.) — the loftiest summit
in the Tyrol and so in the Eastern Alps — is a little to the N.,
and so is wholly Tyrolese. In the Adamello group, the
Adamello (11,661 ft.) itself is W. of the political frontier, and
so is wholly Italian and Bergamasque (therefore Venetian from
1428 to 1797), while the Presanella (i 1,694 ft.) and the Care
Alto (11,369 ft.) are to the E. of the political frontier, and
so are wholly within the Austrian Trentino, as are also the
Brenta Dolomites (culminating in the Cima Tosa, 10,420 ft.),
still farther to the E. Among the Dolomites the glorious rock
needles of the Rosengarten (which culminate in the Kesselkogel,
9846 ft.), the Langkofel (10,427 ft.), and the other Grodnerthal
peaks are to the W. of the political frontier, and so are
now wholly Tyrolese, as formerly included in the territory of the
Bishop of Trent. The Pala di San Martino (9831 ft.) is by
a curious freak wholly Austrian (since 1373, like the Primiero
valley), but the Sass Maor (9239 ft.), the Cima di Vezzana

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ALPS 149

(10,470 ft.) — the Cimone della Pala, 10,453 ft., rises on a N.W,
spur, and so is wholly Austrian — and the Marmolata (11,024
ft), the highest of all Dolomites, are on the political frontier,
and so half in the Tyrol, and half in the Bellunese (now
Italian, but formerly Venetian). On the other hand, the Monte
Civetta (10,564 ft.) and the Pelmo (10,397 ft.) rise to the
E. of the political frontier, and so are wholly in Italy {i.e.
in the Bellunese). Of the Cortina Dolomites the Antelao
(10,706 ft.) is S. of the frontier, in the Bellunese, and so wholly
Italian, while the Tofana (10,633 ft.) is W, of the frontier,
and so wholly Tyrolese. But the Sorapiss (10,594 ft.), Monte
Cristallo (10,496 ft.), and the Drei Zinnen (9853 ft.) are all
on the political frontier, and so are half Tyrolese (since 15 17)
and half in the Bellunese (and so were half Venetian from 1404
till 1797). Farther E., the Monte Peralba (8829 ft.) is S. of
the main watershed, and so wholly Italian, though as it rises to
the W. of the frontier between the Bellunese and Friuli, it is
entirely in the former district. But Monte Coglians (9128 ft.)
and the Kellerwand (9105 ft.) rise on the political frontier be-
tween Austrian Carinthia and Italian Friuli. Monte Canin (8471
ft.), too, rises on the political frontier between Italian Friuli and
the Austrian county of Gorz. But the Manhart (8786 ft.) and
the Terglou (9400 ft.) are wholly Austrian (rising on the frontier
between Carniola, E., and the county of Gorz, W.), as are the
Stou (7346 ft.) and the Grintouc (8429 ft.), which are on the
frontier between Carinthia, N., and Carniola, S., the E. flank
of the last named being claimed by Styria.

CHAPTER VIII

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES OF THE ALPS

THE Alps form a mighty barrier between Italy and the
outer world. But this barrier can be either turned at its
W. or E. extremity (this was the course probably taken by the
earliest barbarian invaders) or boldly forced at one or the other
point. It is with the latter method that we are here concerned.
Now it is an altogether erroneous idea to imagine that a moun-
tain ridge (whether it be the main watershed of the Alps or a
secondary range) always separates in a very marked degree the
inhabitants living on one slope from those living on the other.
To hurried travellers from the plains this may seem to be the
case. But history teaches us that passes rather bring together
the regions situated on their opposite slopes, so that often these
are linked together by far closer bonds than with other districts
towards which they might seem to be naturally attracted by
reason of easier communications. Instances of this are afforded
by the Mont Genevre, which joined under one ruler (the
Dauphin of the Viennois, later the king of France) the valleys
lying to its E. and to its W., and that till 1713 ; or the Great St.
Bernard, by means of which the valley of Aosta was long con-
nected with Burgundy to the N., rather than with Italy to the
S. ; or the St. Gotthard, which unites the Swiss Cantons of Uri
and Tessin with each other ; or the Brenner, that has greatly
helped to create the Tyrol, which sits astride of this mountain
ridge. No doubt it is true that in some cases mountain passes
have afforded to the men on one slope the chance of conquering
and subjugating those on the other. But our point is rather
that, given an original conquest or emigration or what not, dis-

160

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 151

tricts which are physically separated by a more or less lofty
mountain ridge have, later on, frequently shared the same his-
torical fortunes, and even now are joined together under the
same ruler. In fact, one is almost tempted to venture on the
paiadox that mountain ranges unite rather than divide, while a
physical obstacle in a valley will prove far more potent by cutting
off the lower from the higher portion (witness such cases as the
Chisone valley, the Val de Bagnes, the Avers valley, the upper
Inn valley, the composite valley known as the Pusterthal, and so
on). Of course, like all paradoxes, the one we have put forth is
not universally true. But it is true in a sufficiently large number
of cases to justify us in throwing it at the heads of our readers,
for the end and object of a paradox is first to startle, then to
induce a more careful examination of the subject in hand, and
so to bring out new aspects of the matter, or to throw fresh light
on well-known facts.

It is a well-ascertained fact that with the single exception of
the Septimer (with which the Spliigen was often confounded
in the pages of older writers) no pass in the Central Alps
(that is, between the Simplon and the Reschen Scheideck)
across the main watershed was known, or at any rate frequented,
till the early Middle Ages. In short, the Central Alps were not
opened towards Italy till a comparatively recent date, though
now one need only think of the St. Gotthard to realise how com-
pletely things have altered in this respect. Further, as between
the passes in the Western Alps (Col de Tenda to the Simplon)
and those in the Eastern Alps (Reschen Scheideck to the Predil
and the Radstadter Tauern) there were several marked points of
difference. One is that in the Western Alps there was a great
river-valley (that of the Rhone) with several branches (for
instance the Durance and the Isere) which afforded easy access
from the Mediterranean (which is almost touched by the Mari-
time Alps) to the valleys of the W. slope of the Alps, and thus
caused them to lie open to attack or to occupation by the first
comer who profited by this great natural highway. But in the
Eastern Alps no river flows down towards the Hadriatic, save
the Adige, which is there the counterpart of the Rhone: the

152 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

other rivers flow away eastwards (think of the Inn, the Drave,
and the Save), and being separated from the sea by several
ranges, cannot be used as highways from the sea to the valleys
on the E. slope of the Alps as is the case with that of the Rhone.
A second point of difference between the Western and Eastern
ends of the Alps is that the latter was for centuries a border-
land or ' march ' towards, at varying dates, the strange tribes of
the Magyars, the Slavonians, and the Turks, and therefore, like
all frontier lands, was unsettled, exposed to incursions, and not
attractive to peaceful dwellers, ready and able to cultivate and
to civiHse it. How far different was the case in the Western
Alps, where the rich and well-cultivated plains of Gaul, teeming
with Roman civilisation, seemed to invite attack, while there were
secure, uninterrupted, and peaceful communications with Italy.
Once again it is noteworthy that at the W. end of the Alpine
chain the main watershed consists of one ridge and so is easily
crossed. At the E. end of the Alpine chain, however, two or
even three ridges (spreading out like the sticks of a fan) have to
be crossed before the journey from the plains on the N. to those
on the S. is completed. For instance, by means of the Mont
Genevre, the Mont Cenis, or either of the St. Bernards, the
crossing of a single pass led from Gaul to Italy. But in the
Eastern Alps the medieeval highway from Augsburg to Milan
crossed successively three ranges by the Fern, the Reschen
Scheideck, and the Umbrail Passes, while the route from Salz-
burg to Venice had similarly to traverse the Lueg gorge, the
Radstadter Tauern, and then either the Ampezzo, the Plocken,
the Predil, or the Pontebba (Saifnitz) Passes. Nowadays, for
political considerations, the great railway line from Vienna to
Trieste is carried under four ranges by as many tunnels — beneath
the Pyhrn and the Hohe Tauern Passes, next piercing the Kara-
wankas Alps, and finally the Julie Alps by the Wochein tunnel.
One reason, no doubt, for the fact of such complicated routes in
the Eastern Alps has been already pointed out — the rivers there
flow eastwards and not southwards, so that instead of simply
mounting a single valley to the pass at its head, it was necessary
to cross three roughly parallel ridges, thus descending into may-

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 153

hap deep-cut river beds, and twice reascending out of them,
this course rendering the traverse of this portion of the Alps very
toilsome, even though the passes themselves may be easier and
lower than at the W. end of the Alpine chain. Yet there were
also drawbacks in the Western Alps. If the main watershed
consisted of but one ridge it was often necessary (if one came
from the W.) to cross a second in order to reach the foot of the
former, if one desired to avoid a great detour by following a long
and winding river-valley in all its length. For instance, in order
to reach the W. foot of either the Col de I'Argentiere or the
Mont Genevre direct from the Rhone valley, it is necessary to
cross a second pass (whether near Gap or by the Col du
Lautaret) to gain the Durance valley, whence both passes lead
to Italy. Herein an enormous advantage lay with other passes
to which a single valley led up straight from the plains on the
W., and hence the mediaeval Mont Cenis finally beat the Roman
Mont Genevre out of the field. So, too, the Roman Great St.
Bernard beat the mediseval Simplon (till the latter got a high-
road made over it). Similarly, in the Central Alps the St. Gott-
hard and the Septimer became the great highways when the
Alps were better known, the journey over the neighbouring
passes, such as the Lukmanier, the San Bernardino, the Julier-
Maloja, etc., involving far more labour and time. In the
Eastern Alps the Brenner enjoys a similar advantage over its
neighbours.

The political importance which attached to the possession of
Alpine passes is so obvious that we need not dwell upon it at
length. The long struggle for the Valtelline (or upper valley of
the Adda) between 1620 and 1639 shows this, for by it the
Milanese and Imperial lines of the House of Habsburg could
communicate and help each other, while the object of their
enemies (whether French or Swiss) was to block this highway.
So, too. Napoleon, ' that great master of practical geography,' as
Mr. Ball calls him, took very good care to secure his hold on the
Vallais, and thus on the Great St. Bernard and Simplon Passes
— from 1802 to 1 8 10 it was formed into a Rhodanic Republic,
quite distinct from the Helvetic Republic (of which it formed

154 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

part from 1798 to 1802), while from 1810 to 1814 it was simply
the ' Departement du Simplon ' of the French Empire. A much
earlier case of the importance attached to the holding of the
passes over the Alps is afforded by the special care as to this
point shown by Charles the Great when elaborating a scheme
(never carried out, owing to the death of two of the intended
beneficiaries) for the division of his Empire (which, as we have
before pointed out, included the entire chain of the Alps) among
his three sons in 806. The eldest son, Charles (d. 811) was to
receive on his father's death the old Frankish realm ; Pippin, the
second son (d. 810), Italy, Bavaria, and Raetia; and the youngest
son, Louis (who alone survived his father, and is known in history
as Louis the Pious), was to have what corresponds to E. and S.
France (including Savoy). The Empire being thus partitioned
out, Charles continues : ' This division is so arranged that Charles
and Louis may have a route into Italy open to them so as to
assist their brother, if occasion arise, Charles through the valley
of Aosta, which belongs to his kingdom, and Louis through the
valley of Susa, while Pippin is to have his going out and his
coming in through the Noric Alps and past Coire.' It will be
seen that the lands received by each son were so disposed as to
allow of the command of the several passes named — Charles
had the Great St. Bernard, and Louis the Mont Genevre and
the Mont Cenis, while Pippin held the later Tyrol, and also the
route past Coire, the Brenner and Septimer Passes being here
meant.

The enumeration of the Alpine passes thus secured by Charles
the Great to his heirs is not merely interesting as showing us which
were then the most frequented, but also because none of these
passes is described by any special name, the route being indicated
simply by stating the valley or the region of the Alps through
which it passed, or the important Alpine city which was neces-
sarily visited in the course of the journey. In fact, the modern
practice of attributing special names to Alpine passes does not
come in vogue till the early Middle Ages. Hence in trying to
trace out, say, the journey of an Emperor or great ecclesiastic
across the Alps, we have to note the towns by which he passed

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 155

and the valleys which he traversed. There are very few excep-
tions to this general rule, which obtains to some extent even in
the early Middle Ages, so that considerable patience has to be
exercised in this matter. As we should expect, it is the more
westerly passes from Italy to Transalpine Gaul which are first
mentioned by special names, e.g. the Mont Genevre, the Mont
Cenis, and the two St. Bernards. These were 'through routes,'
and so had to be distinguished from the minor highways. Only
fugitives and very cunning military commanders, for similar
reasons of secrecy, used these side tracks. It is remarkable
how many of the old Roman and mediaeval passes still retain
their predominance in modern times, even though, i?iter se, the
popularity of one may decline, or that of another may increase —
in short, there are 'fashions ' in Alpine passes, as well as in most
other matters pertaining to mankind.

Before entering on an account (which must be brief, as be-
fits our limits) of the chief Alpine passes, we must lay down
some rule or principle by which to distinguish a ' great historical
pass ' from a minor one. This is not so easy a task as it seems
to be at first sight. Obviously we must place in the forefront
the principal passes across the ffiain divide of the Alps, those,
in other words, which connect the outer world with fair Italy.
But since to the epithet ' great ' we have added that of ' historical,'
it follows that in these pages it is the historical part played by
any pass, and not merely its topographical features (directness,
easiness, lowness), which must guide us in making our selection —
whether the historical importance of the pass be due to military,
to commercial, to economical, or to political reasons. This
qualification of 'historical' implies further that we cannot, as
some writers urge, leave wholly out of sight those passes which
do not traverse the main divide of the Alps, but cross its lateral
ridges. The international importance of these passes may not
be so great as in the case of the former class, but their historical
importance (particularly in the case of shiftings of the popula-
tion, etc.) may be even greater. Hence we propose to include
both classes in the following brief survey, though, of course, it is
impossible to enumerate all the passes which have played a

156 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

part in purely local history. Our choice has been based on
a very wide and detailed personal knowledge of both classes
of passes (though less detailed in the Eastern Alps than in
the two other divisions of the chain), and it is hoped that no
really 'historical pass' has been omitted. But, of course, the
passes over the main divide will claim most of our attention,
the others having to be content with a more or less cursory
mention.

As we have indicated elsewhere, the knowledge of the Alpine
passes possessed by the Romans has, in in our opinion, been
vastly exaggerated. That practical race did not stop to admire
the beauties of nature, but faced the horrors of the mountains
for purely business reasons — military, administrative, or com-
mercial : it was only after the spread of Christianity that pilgrims
and ecclesiastics swelled the throng of travellers over the Alps,
on their way to or from the ' threshold of the Apostles,' Rome,
the true centre of Western civilisation in all respects. Still, as
it is mainly from Roman writers (with an occasional Greek
geographer, like Strabo) that we owe our first more or less
detailed knowledge (however imperfect) of the Alpine passes,
it is best to consider which passes are actually mentioned by
them or in the Itineraries, or in surviving inscriptions. We
exclude in each case the so-called pass by the Maritime Alps,
which is simply the way along the shore of the Mediterranean
from Genoa to Marseilles, traversing one of the last spurs
(1490 ft.) of the Alps at Turbie, above Monaco, and is not a
pass in the modern sense of the term, though it does cross the
main divide of the Alps that runs S. from the Mont Clapier.
Materials fail for tracing out the gradual spread of the know-
ledge of the Alpine passes, a subject which would be most
interesting, if only it were possible to treat it adequately.

Strabo (first century a.d.) reports that Polybios (second
century B.C.) — the passage has been preserved to us by Strabo
only — enumerated (besides the pass through the country of
the Ligurians, i.e. the Turbie route) three passes across the
Alps— first that through the country of the Taurini, 'which
was crossed by Hannibal,' then that through the country of

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 157

the Salassi, and finally that through the country of the R^eti.
These routes seem to be the Mont Genevre {not the Mont
Cenis, for reasons to be mentioned presently), the Great (though
possibly the Little) St. Bernard, and the Brenner. Servius
(early fifth century a.d.) commenting on a passage of Virgil's
yEtieid (book x. line 13), quotes the statement (preserved to us
only by this citation) of Varro (first century B.C.) that in the
Alps of Gaul {i.e., roughly speaking, the Western Alps of this
work) there were five passes known to him, one being that
through the country of the Ligurians— the others are described
with a precise though tantalising vagueness as that which Hanni-
bal crossed, that which was traversed by Pompey on his way to
the war in Spain, that by which Hasdrubal came from Gaul
to Italy, and finally that through the Graian Alps. The last
named is clearly the Little St. Bernard, while the rest, though
clearly all in the Western Alps, have been the subject of many
discussions. It is not our intention to enter here on the much-
vexed question of the pass which was crossed by Hannibal
when he entered Italy in B.C. 218, that event for the first time
bringing it home to the Romans that the barrier of the Alps
was not as impassable as they had fondly believed it to be.
But the present writer may be allowed to state that he is very
strongly in favour of the Mont Genevre. No doubt there are
contradictions and discrepancies in the accounts of this famous
passage which have been handed down to us by Polybios and
by Livy. But the present writer has himself either crossed, or
in a few cases reached the summit of (that is, ascended one
slope only) every pass in the Alps, high or low, which has ever
been claimed by even the wildest writer (and there are many
of them) as being possibly that of Hannibal, and his conviction
has been confirmed more and more that the Mont Genevre was
in all probability the pass. In any case, he is of opinion that
its only really serious rival is the Little St. Bernard, the other
passes which have been brought forward all failing in some
important respect to meet the requirements of the case. It
should, however, be always borne in mind that all these accounts
we have of passes across the Alps are second-hand — Strabo and

158 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Servius may easily have misquoted or misunderstood the authors
they cite, while Hannibal's march is known to us only by the
reports given by the Romans, and not (unfortunately) from
Carthaginian sources.

Let us now turn to the ' Itineraries,' which date from the
fourth century a.d., and so from near the end of the rule of
the Romans, and a little while before the arrival of the ' bar-
barians.' Of these, that known as the Antonine Linerary is
the most important, while the Jerusalem Itinerary mentions
but two passes on the way from Bordeaux to Jerusalem, but
that called the ' Peutinger Table ' (a thirteenth century copy of
a fourth century original) is very useful in its way, though it is
pictorial rather than a mere dry list of ' stations ' like the two
others. Now (always excluding the route by the ' Maritime Alps ')
we find that the Mont Genevre (which is the first pass indicated
by the Jerusalem Itinerary) is mentioned both by the Antonine
Itinerary and the Peutinger Table. Both also mention the
Little and the Great St. Bernard (not by their present names,
of course), possibly the Spliigen, certainly the Septimer, and
the Brenner, as well as two low passes on the extreme E.
limit of the Alps, the Birnbaumer Wald (also mentioned by
the Jerusalem Itinerary), from Laibach to Gorz, and the Pyhrn
Pass, from Liezen (Enns valley) to Linz. The Antonine
Itinerary alone indicates the routes over the Monte Croce
(Plocken) Pass and the Saifnitz (Pontebba) Pass, across the
most southerly of the three ranges at the E. end of the Eastern
Alps, while the Peutinger Table alone mentions that of the
Radstiidter Tauern, across the central of the above-mentioned
three ranges. These are all the passes which are actually
mentioned in the Itineraries, and which therefore were certainly
known to the Romans in the fourth century a.d., while the mile-
stones found on the Radstiidter Tauern route have inscrip-
tions mentioning Septimius Severus and Caracalla (early third
century). Claims have been made for other passes on the
ground of monuments, inscriptions, milestones, finds of Roman
coins {e.g. the St. Theodule and the Julier), etc. But though
passes other than those mentioned expressly in the Itineraries

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 159

were (it is highly probable) known to the Romans and certainly
to the inhabitants, it is, in the opinion of the present writer,
impossible to say definitely that, in addition to those already
enumerated, any other passes were known to the Romans than
the Col de I'Argentiere (in the Western Alps) and the Jaufen
Pass, as well as the Solkscharte and other passes over the
Tauern range (in the Eastern Alps). As stated previously, the
Central Alps were (save in the case of the Septimer, and possibly
of the Splugen) only opened by passes in the Middle Ages.

Of course, the names actually borne by the Alpine passes are
modern. But it is interesting to note that in a few cases names
are given to passes in the Itineraries, this fact probably showing
that these were the most frequented routes. Thus the Mont
Genevre (which was the great Alpine pass known in antiquity)
is called 'Alpes Cottise' or 'Alpis Cottia' by the Antonine
Itinerary and Peutinger Table respectively, while the Jerusalem
Itinerary adds the name of ' Matrona.' Both the Antonine
Itinerary and the Peutinger Table call the Little St. Bernard
'Alpes Graige' or the 'Alpis Graia,' and the Great St. Bernard
' Alpes Penninae ' or the ' Summus Penninus.' This agrees
with the view that the passes across the Western Alps were
by far the most important in antiquity. The Antonine
Itinerary attributes no names to any of the other passes it
indicates. But the Peutinger Table gives the singular and
hitherto unexplained appellation of ' Cunu aureu ' apparently
to the Spliigen, while it calls the Birnbaumer Wald the
' Alpis Julia,' the Jerusalem Itinerary preferring the form of
'Julife.'

After these general considerations as to the Alpine passes
known of old, we must go on to speak more in detail of those
which were frequented (by the Emperors on their way to Rome,
or by pilgrims or by armies or by students or by merchants) in
the Middle Ages and in still more recent times. It seems most
convenient to enumerate these passes under the heads of the
Western, the Central, and the Eastern Alps, briefly (for our limits
forbid more) pointing out the chief historical characteristics of
each, and recalling by the way the minor passes across the main

i6o THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

divide, and the principal routes over lateral ridges. By a
curious irony of fate the very first of our ' Great Passes,' the
Col de Tenda, crosses, strictly speaking, a lateral ridge, for the
main divide of the Alps dips S. at the Mont Clapier, a little to
its W., and runs down to the Turbie spur. It need hardly be
pointed out that the routes from all these passes converge in
Italy towards one of the great cities of Turin, Milan, and Venice,
which (roughly speaking) form the goal respectively of the passes
from the Western, the Central, and the Eastern Alps.

I. — The Western Alps

In this region we may reckon about eight great historical
passes (Tenda, Argentiere, Mont Genevre, the Mont Cenis, the
two St. Bernards, the Antrona Pass, and the Simplon), which
we must now briefly notice in topographical order, intercalating
a few minor passes which seem to deserve a mention.

The most southerly of these passes, the Col de Tenda
(6145 ft.), leading from Cuneo past Tenda to Ventimiglia, has
always been chiefly useful to the local lords (first the Counts
of Tenda, then the Angevin Counts of Provence, and from
1575 onwards the House of Savoy) who have ruled over the
regions on either slope, which are linked together by it.
Crossed in 906 by the Saracens of La Garde Freinet on their
way to ravage the region of Cuneo, it comes into importance
mainly after 1388 when the county of Nice passed to the
House of Savoy, the heads of which used it as their shortest
route from one part of their dominions to another. The town
of Nice can, however, only be reached by this route after
crossing two minor passes, for the direct route from the pass
runs down the valley of the Roja to Ventimiglia. A carriage
road was constructed across it, 1 779-1 782, though the tunnel
beneath the crest of the pass, commenced by the Dukes of
Savoy in the early eighteenth century, was only completed in
1882. But, owing to the French 'enclave' of Saorge, etc.
(see Chapter vi.), the projected railway line to Ventimiglia
cannot take the natural course down the Roja valley, but

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES i6i

must pass through a second tunnel in order to round this
obstacle, and the extra expense will no doubt long hinder
the carrying out of this scheme. The Col de Tenda is also
used as a means of communication between Cuneo and Nice,
but to reach that town two other lower ridges must be crossed
on the way, the first by the Col de Brouis (2749 ft.), from
Giandola to Sospel, and the second by the Col de Brans
(3278 ft.), over the main divide of the Alps, from Sospel to
L'Escarene, whence, after crossing a third ridge, the Paillon glen
is followed to Nice. At Nice fall in the direct routes from
Barcelonnette through the Var valley by the new carriage road
over the Col de la Cayolle (7717 ft.) or through that of its
affluent, the Tinee, over the mule pass of the Col des Grafiges
Cof/wmnes (8242 ft.). These passes were frequented in the
older days when both Barcelonnette and Nice belonged to the
House of Savoy. On the other hand, the Col delle Finestre
(8107 ft.) is still the most frequented pass of the region, next
after the Col de Tenda, for on its S. side (though still in
Italian territory) is a locally famous sanctuary of the Madonna.

Next in order comes the Col de rArgentiere (6545 ft.), so
called in France from the first village, Argentera, on the Italian
side, while the Italians call it ' Col de Larche,' from the first
important village on the French side. — it is also called ' Col
de la Madeleine,' from a chapel near the top- It leads from
Cuneo to Barcelonnette in the Ubaye valley. It is one of the
.very few Alpine passes which, though not mentioned in the
Itineraries, yet was certainly known to the Romans, as is shown
by various antiquities found on the route, though the inscrip-
tions are said to be forged. Some writers have attempted to
show that it was Hannibal's pass, but, in the opinion of the
present writer, who crossed it in 1883 in company with the
chief supporter of this theory, this view is untenable. As the
route over it leads to the valley of the Durance, it is necessary
to cross a second pass before reaching the central bit of the
Rhone valley, and this topographical drawback has always told
against our pass. After the county of Nice (which included
Barcelonnette) came to the House of Savoy from the Counts

i62 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

of Provence in 1388, and till Barcelonnette became French in
1713 (the rest of the county did not come to France till i860)
our pass was the chief route for the Savoy sovereigns from
Piedmont to this part of their dominions, for both sides of
the Mont Genevre were (from 1349) French. The main
historical event in the annals of the Argentiere is the passage
of Francis i. in 15 15 on his way to Italy. It was later crossed
by armies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The
carriage road across was begun by Napoleon (though not
completed till of late years), who styled it ' route imperiale
d'Espagne en Italic,' while it actually bears the title of 'route
de Montpellier a Coni.' The Col de Vars (6939 ft.) is, how-
ever, the direct military route (especially since the construction
of a char road across it) from the grand Tournoux Fort near the
W. foot of the Argentiere to the junction of the Guil glen below
Briangon with the main Durance valley.

N. of the Argentiere and yet S. of the Mont Genevre the
main divide (almost everywhere easily crossed) is traversed by
several passes, none of them boasting of a carriage road.
The Col de FAgnel (9003 ft.) leads from the Queyras valley
(or Guil valley) to Chateau Dauphin (Casteldelfino) at the head
of the Varaita valley, and was (till Chateau Dauphin became
Savoyard in 17 13) the main route from the Dauphine to that
outlying bit of Dauphinois territory. That village, still domin-
ated by the ruined fourteenth century castle of the Dauphins
whence it takes its name, is indeed a great meeting-point of
routes over easy Alpine passes, for the Col de Longet (8767 ft.)
and the Col de Lautaret {^^26 ft.) both join it to the head of
the Ubaye valley, while the Col de Vallante (9269 ft.) con-
nects it with the head of the Guil valley, and so with the
Traversette and the Croix routes. Rather to the N. of
Monte Viso is the Col de la Traversette (9679 ft.), leading
from the Queyras to the head of the Po valley : it is note-
worthy by reason of the extraordinary tunnel pierced a little
below the crest between 1478 and 1480 by Louis, IMarquess
of Saluzzo, and Louis xi. of France, in order to facilitate
exports, particularly of salt from Provence into Italy, and of rice

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 163

and oil from Italy into France : the present writer has often
passed through this ' trou ' or ' pertuis,' which later was
blocked up by falls of rock, though reopened in 1907. Still
more to the N. is the Colde la Croix (7576 ft.), which, even to
this day, is the main means of communication between the
Queyras and the Val Pellice, the principal of the Waldensian
valleys of Piedmont : on the French side stands one of the
small hospices built by Napoleon i., while on the Italian side
there is a small inn, above the picturesque ruined fort of
Mirabouc.

Now at last we come to the Mont Genevre (6083 ft), a pass
which may be described as having long been the principal
means of communication between France and Italy. It leads
from Briangon at the head of the Durance valley to Susa
and Turin. As both slopes were colonised by the Romans,
we are not surprised to find that this pass plays a great part in
the older records. Most probably it was crossed by Hannibal,
while it was certainly crossed by Caesar in B.C. 58 on his way
to the conquest of Gaul, and hence the title of ' Alpis Julia'
conferred on it by Livy. Towards the end of the fourth
century the route over it was described very minutely by
Ammianus Marcellinus, this being by far the most detailed
notice of any Alpine pass written in what may be still called
'Roman times.' Even Strabo (first century a.d.) devotes more
space (though that is not saying much) to this pass than to any
other. About 574-5 it was the pass over which the wild
Lombards surged towards Gaul, and over which the Franks
drove them back, and occupied the valley of Susa. It was, in
fact, the shortest route by which to reach Lombardy, and was
perhaps taken by Charles the Great in 773 when bound on
his first visit to Italy, which was to be rendered so memorable
by the complete subjugation of the Lombards (774). But
the Mont Genevre suffers from the drawback that on the W.
side the crossing of a second pass (whether the direct Col du
Lautaret, 6808 ft., — connected with the Mont Cenis route
by the Col du Galibier, 8721 ft., now traversed by a military
carriage road — or the roundabout route by Embrun and Gap

i64 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

— both certainly Roman roads) is necessary in order to reach
the Rhone valley, so that its star paled before that of the
Mont Cenis (accessible direct by a single valley) in the eighth
century. Hence the Mont Genevre gradually fell to the
position of a specially French pass, especially after the Dauphine
was joined to France (1349), for that event brought to the
crown of France wide regions (the valley of the Dora Riparia
till close on Susa, and that of the Chisone till near Pinerolo)
lying on the E. slope of the pass, and communicating with
France most easily by it. (The Mont Cenis was, of course,
from the eleventh century till x86o wholly in the hands of the
House of Savoy). A single Pope (Innocent 11., in 1131) and a
single Emperor (Frederick i., in 1177, on his way to his corona-
tion as king of Aries) are recorded to have crossed our pass.
It was by it that Charles viii. in 1494 went to invade Italy,
and in 1629 it was crossed by Louis xiii., accompanied by
Richelieu. Even after the loss of the regions on the E. (ex-
changed for Barcelonnette in 17 13) the Mont Genevre retained
its special character as the French pass across the Alps, and
troops passed over it in 1859 on the way to Magenta and
Solferino. Nowadays (despite the fact that it is crossed by a
fine carriage road, finished in 1806) the Mont Genevre is but
little known to foreign travellers, but it was once in the very
first rank of Alpine passes, though its historical import-
ance has diminished steadily, and it was practically quite super-
seded by the Mont Cenis, of which the Savoyard side became
French in i860. Yet it is low and easy, while on the summit
there is a village inhabited all the year round. By means of
the Col de Sestrieres (6631 ft.) there is an alternative route
from Cesanne at the N. foot of the Mont Genevre, that runs
down the Chisone valley past Fe'nestrelles to Pinerolo.

Compared with the Mont Genevre the Mont Cenis (6893 ft.)
has quite a short history, though by means of the narrow valley
of the Maurienne (or of the Arc) it can be reached direct
from Geneva, Lyons, or Grenoble, while on the other side
its route joins that of the Mont Genevre at Susa. The name
of 'Cenis' appears first in 739 as that of some pastures, no

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 165

doubt those on the great plateau of the pass. But as the
name of a pass it occurs first in 756, on the occasion of the
crossing by Pippin. That king may have crossed it in 754 —
he certainly then crossed some pass from the Maurienne to
Susa, but no name is given to it. In the opinion of the
present writer the usual pass before the eighth century from
the Maurienne to Susa was the very easy mule pass of the
Col de la Roue (8419 ft.), which is a little S.W. of the so-called
Mont Cenis Tunnel, and leads in five hours past the famed
local sanctuary of Notre Dame du Charmaix from Modane to
Bardonneche and on to Oulx, on the Mont Genevre route :
this pass was certainly frequented in the Middle Ages (it is
mentioned by name as early as 1189) as it is at present by the
natives. In any case, the Mont Cenis soon became the fashion,
and was the pass usually traversed by the Prankish kings on
their way to Lombardy. Between 814 and 825 Louis the Pious
founded the Hospice on the summit (it was refounded by
Napoleon i.), and in 877 Charles the Bald died on his way over
the pass. With the single exception of the Great St. Bernard
no pass in the Western Alps was so often crossed by the
Emperors. Among others, the passage in January, 1077, by
Henry iv. (on his way to Canossa), with his wife and suite,
is noteworthy by reason of the very vivid account of the
adventures of the party given by the chronicler, Lambert of
Hersfeld. The ladies were placed on skins and so drawn
down the icy slopes towards Italy. Naturally the princes of
the House of Savoy frequently crossed our pass, which lay
wholly within their dominions and led direct from their early
capital, Chambery, to their later (from 1559 onwards) capital,
Turin. In February, 1476, the crossing was effected by
Yolande, Dowager-Duchess of Savoy (sister of Louis xi.), hasten-
ing to the help of her ally, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy.
This passage is remarkable, because we first then hear of the
practice of 'ramassier' (later called 'glisser a la ramasse'),
that is ' tobogganing ' on wooden sledges, guided by men called
' marons ' (the name is almost always reserved to the men
employed on the Mont Cenis and on the Great St. Bernard),

166 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

by which the descent was made very quickly (even in summer)
from the pass to Lanslebourg. Later on, most travellers (let
Montaigne in 1581 be specially named) employed this speedy
method, which probably was one of the minor attractions of
the pass. The local saying was 'marrons de la Novalese,
mulcts de Lanslebourg ' (Novalesa being the great Benedictine
monastery between Susa and the pass, wliich flourished from
726 to 1855). In fact, we may say confidently that if a
traveller going from France to Italy does not name the route
he took across the Alps, it is almost certain that it will turn
out to have been the Mont Cenis. Yet there was only a mule
path across the pass till Napoleon {the great road-builder in the
Alps) had the carriage road constructed between 1803 and
1810. For a few years, 1868-1871, a light railway (the first of
its kind), called the ' Fell Railway ' from the name of its inven-
tor, was worked (by English engine-drivers) right across the
pass. But by previous contract it was unfortunately destroyed
when the tunnel was opened in September 1871, though it
must be carefully recollected that this tunnel is pierced at
a spot seventeen miles W. of the Mont Cenis, and beneath the
Col de Frejus (8294 ft.), so that it is accurately named 'Tunnel
de Frejus.' At Bramans, about half-way between Modane and
Lanslebourg, the main Arc valley is joined by the little known
Ambin glen (split into three arms), from which lead various
passes. One of these, the Col d'Etache (9144 ft.), leads over to
Bardonneche, and another, the Col d" Ambin {()2,^:\ ft.), to Exilles.
But more important historically is the most northerly of the
three arms of this glen, that of Savine. From it the Fetil Mont
Cenis (7166 ft.) leads over to the Mont Cenis plateau, and,
while certainly crossed in 1689 by the Waldensians, has rather
singularly been also claimed for Hannibal. This is also the
case (according to a recent French writer) with the Col de
Clapier {^iT T^ ft.) that leads from the head of the Savine arm
to Susa. But the present writer, who has several times visited
this valley, is still quite incredulous as to the passage of the
Carthaginian army in this part of the Alps, though ' white
rocks,' etc., are easily found there, as elsewhere. Much higher

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 167

up the Arc valley than Bramans is Bessans, whence the Col de
VAutaret (10,073 ft.) leads N. of the Rochemelon over to
Lanzo, above Turin,

The next great pass on our list is the Little St. Bernard.
But before speaking of it let us mention two other passes.
One, just W. of the main divide, is called the Col dti Mont
Iseran (9085 ft.), and leads from the head-waters of the Arc
(the Maurienne) to those of the Isere (the Tarentaise). It is
noteworthy in that it was crossed in 1689 by the Waldensians,
under Henri Arnaud, on their return (the ' Glorieuse Rentree ')
to their Piedmontese valleys. In the early nineteenth century
a legend sprang up that near the pass rose the lofty Mont
Iseran (13,271 ft. in height), one of the giants of the Alps,
and this peak actually appears in 1845 and 1858 in the
publications (book and map) of the Sardinian engineers, though
Its existence was disproved, by a personal examination of the
region in 1859-1860 by two English travellers, Mr. William
Mathews and Mr. J. J. Cowell — there had simply been a mis-
placement of other lofty (though not so lofty) peaks in the
neighbourhood. The other pass, the Col du Mont (8681 ft.)
leads from near the W. foot of the Little St. Bernard by the
Val Grisanche to the Aosta valley: it is indeed a kind of
' under study ' of the Little St. Bernard, and formerly was much
used by the natives as it is easier than the other pass : in 1792-
1800 (especially in 1794) it was the scene of several bloody
combats between the French and the Piedmontese. From
the very head of the Isere valley the easy glacier pass of the
Col de la Galise (9836 ft.) gives access to the very head of the
Oreo glen, whence the grassy Col de la Croix de Nivokt
(8665 ft.) leads to Aosta.

The Little St. Bernard (7179 ft.) has a remarkably unevent-
ful history. It was certainly crossed by Ccesar on his last
journey from Gaul to Rome before the outbreak of the civil
war in B.C. 49, and probably shared with the Mont Genevre
the honour of being the regular route of Roman officials going
to or returning from Gaul. But its later history is most meagre,
though one might have expected that a pass which joined two

i68 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

of the oldest possessions of the House of Savoy (the valley
of Aosta and the Tarentaise) would have played a more prom-
inent part. Probably the fact that it was midway between the
Mont Cenis and the Great St. Bernard was disadvantageous to
it, as also the very steep ascent on the S.W. slope and the great
gorge on the N.E. slope. It is true that a Hospice existed on
the summit from the eleventh century onwards. But while the
earlier mediaeval title of the pass (as of its neighbour) was
* Mons Jovis ' it later (i i8i) took that of ' domus sancti Bernardi
mentis Jovis.' From about 1466 the Hospice was served by
the Austin canons of the Great St. Bernard, and dependent
on the house there, while about 1500 the pass is called the
' Mont Jouvet ' to distinguish it from the Mont Joux, or the
Great St. Bernard — the one pass thus rising and the other
falling. About 1750 the Hospice was handed over to the care
of the military and religious order of SS. Maurice and Lazarus,
which still holds it, but it was not till about 187 1 that the
carriage road across the pass was completed.

Nearly opposite the Little St. Bernard, across the upper
Val d' Aosta, is the Great St. Ber?iard Pass (81 11 ft.), perhaps
the Alpine pass which is best known by name to non-travellers.
It seems to have been frequented even before the days of the
Romans, and has never since then ceased to be one of the
great thoroughfares across the Alps. The Hospice was probably
originally placed in the early ninth century in the village of
Bourg St. Pierre, at the foot of the last ascent on the Swiss
side. But by 859 it probably existed on the summit of the
pass, while it was refounded there (after the ravages of the
Saracens from La Garde Freinet had ceased) by St. Bernard
of Menthon (d. about 1081). Perhaps since 11 54, certainly
since 1215, it has been served by Austin canons (who formerly
held the Little St. Bernard Hospice, and still hold that on the
Simplon), whose mother-house is at Martigny. One of the
earliest detailed itineraries across it which have come down
to us is that of Sigeric, Archbishop of Canterbury, who went
over the pass in 990, for the Saracens had been driven away after
their memorable capture (973) of Majolus, the abbat of Cluny,

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 169

on his journey. The canons at one time held many lands in
England : in 1177 the chapel of Romford is mentioned among
their possessions, while Henry 11. gave them the hospital of
Hornchurch or Havering in Essex, which was acquired from
them by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, for the
benefit of his great foundation (1379) of New College, Oxford,
which still owns the property and the advowson of the living.
The pass was a favourite one with kings and pilgrims on their
way to Rome. In 773 Bernard, the uncle of Charles the
Great, crossed it, and was later followed by many Emperors,
ending with Sigismund in 14 14, if indeed we should not extend
the list to Napoleon's famous passage in May, 1800, as he
put himself forward as the successor of the medieval Emperors.
Nowadays the spread of mountain railways has taken away from
the practical importance of the Great St. Bernard, which is
mainly frequented by Piedmontese labourers who, on their way
to find work for the summer in Switzerland, cross this pass in
spring and in autumn. Yet it is surprising that the carriage road
over our pass was completed so very recently — the bit from the
last village on the Swiss side in 1893 0"^y> ^^'^ile that from
the last hamlet on the Italian side was not opened till 1905.
The Col Ferret {%i\i ft.), soon to be traversed by the highest
carriage road within Switzerland, is nearly parallel to the
Great St. Bernard, as is the Col de la Seigne (8242 ft.) in
relation to the Little St. Bernard.

We must now turn eastwards along the great divide, which
is crossed at various points by some of the oldest glacier passes
known, in particular the Col de Fenetre (9 141 ft.), the Col de
Collon (10,270 ft.), the St. Theoduk (10,899 ft.), and the
Schwarzberg Weissthor (11,851 ft.): all these passes were well
known in the first half of the sixteenth century, the Theodule
having probably been traversed in the thirteenth century already.
But, however interesting, they cannot be called great historical
passes, as practically they were only used by the natives. Far
other is the case with two other passes, both situated at the
head of the Saas valley — the Monte Moro (9390 ft.) and the
Antrona Pass (9331 ft.) — both leading to the Ossola valley,

I70 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

a little below Domo d'Ossola, the former by the Val Anzasca,
and the latter by the Val Antrona. Both are mentioned in the
thirteenth century, and in 1440 (by 1403 already in the case
of the Monte Moro) we hear that a mule track had been
constructed over both. The Monte Moro (the origin of the
name is uncertain, though it certainly has nothing to do with
' Lodovico il Moro ' of Milan) served mainly as the means of
communication between the Italian-speaking colony at Saas
(the traces of which can still be found by a close examination
of the local names) dating from about 1250, and the German-
speaking colony at Macugnaga (which still flourishes there)
dating from between 1262 and 1291 — both were established
by the local lord, the Count of Biandrate or Blandrate, who by
marriage had acquired lands in the Vallais. The Antrona
Pass, on the other hand, was for centuries the great com-
mercial route from the Upper Vallais towards Milan, for the
Simplon was far more difficult of access. A great landslip in
1642 nearly destroyed the whole of the village of Antrona.
But the paved track (bits of which are still visible) was restored
once more in the early eighteenth century, while in 1790-2 we
hear of large imports of salt from the Milanese across the
pass, this being one of the chief commodities in which trade
was carried on. But the construction of the carriage road over
the Simplon (1801-5) put an end to the prosperity of our pass,
which retains its character as an 'historical pass,' though it
can no longer be called a ' great ' pass.

The name of Swiplon appears first in 1235, if we take count
only of authentic documents. It is then applied to the
Hospice on the pass (6592 ft.), though the village of that name
on the S. slope of the pass is not mentioned till 1267, when,
however, it had a church (not merely a chapel), so that it must
have existed for some time already. Probably its settlement
is another case of that curious and widely diffused wave of
colonisation from the Upper Vallais in the thirteenth century.
It is said that Odo, Archbishop of Rouen, crossed it in 1254,
and Pope Gregory x. in 1275. A good deal of detailed in-
formation has been preserved to us about the tolls, and other

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 171

arrangements (especially towards the end of the thirteenth
century) for the transport of goods across the pass, which was
always in the hands of the Vallaisans (especially of the Bishop
of Sion), and is often called the ' mons Briga ' (from Brieg at its
W. foot). But the Hospice, which had belonged to the
Knights Hospitaller of St. John of Jerusalem, gradually dis-
appears from sight in the fifteenth century, probably because the
Antrona Pass in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was at the
height of its prosperity. Besides, the path over the Simplon
was very dangerous and exposed on both sides, even if the great
gorge of Gondo was avoided by crossing two low passes (between
which lay the Zwischbergen valley) to the Val Bognanco, which
leads straight down to Domo d'Ossola. In the fifteenth and
early sixteenth century the Simplon was often crossed by the
Vallaisans and Swiss while striving (1410-1515) to seize or hold
the Val d'Ossola. The old Hospice was sold in 1655 to the
Stockalper family of Brieg, which entertained travellers. But this
pass never really rose much, if at all, beyond a route of local
importance, till Napoleon cast his eyes upon it and realised its
strategical importance. He caused the present carriage road to be
constructed across it between 1801 and 1805, and built a set of
barracks on the summit, which forms the present New Hospice
(the Old Hospice is that built by the Stockalpers), which in
1825 was bought by the Austin canons of the Great St. Bernard,
and is still occupied by some members of that community. In
1802 Napoleon detached the Vallais from the Helvetic Republic,
raising it into a separate state as the ' Rhodanic RepubHc,' and
annexing it (1810) to the French Empire as the ' Departement du
Simplon,' though the region finally became Swiss in 1815.
Very recently a tunnel has been pierced beneath the pass (it
was opened in the spring of 1906), and so the Simplon has
become a great international route, and has thus acquired far
more importance than it had ever possessed previously.

172 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

II. — The Central Alps

The Central Alps are crossed by comparatively few Great
Passes. Indeed, one can only reckon a good half-dozen (the
St. Gotthard, the Lukmanier, the San Bernardino, the Spliigen,
the Septimer, the Ofen, and the Umbrail). The passes leading
to the Engadine have merely a local importance, save the Ofen
and its continuation, the Fliiela. But, to make up for this
paucity of passes over the main chain, there are a number of
routes over the ranges that rise to the N. of the main divide,
and often rival (if they do not surpass) it in point of height.

The two passes over the main crest that we meet with a little
to the N.E. of the Simplon may be dismissed briefly. One is
the Alb run Pass (7907 ft.), leading from the Binn glen of the
Upper Vallais to Baceno in the Val d'Ossola, above Domo :
it has always been a smugglers' pass, being off the main route,
while in 1425 it was crossed by the Swiss when making one of
their raids on Domo d'Ossola. The other pass, the Gries Pass
(8098 ft.), has a small flat glacier on the summit, which is,
however, easily traversed by beasts of burden. It leads from
near the very head of the Upper Vallais, through the Eginen
glen (whence the Nufefien Pass, 8006 ft., affords a convenient
short cut to Airolo, at the S. foot of the'St. Gotthard) to the very
head of the Tosa valley (called here the Val Formazza, and
lower down the Val d'Ossola) and to the splendid Tosa Falls.
No doubt it was over the Gries that the still existing German-
speaking colony in the Val Formazza came in the thirteenth
century. Then, too, the Gries Pass served, in combination with
the Grimsel (the old paved track from the latter still exists and
reaches the upper Rhone valley close to the entrance of the
Eginen glen), for the transport of merchandise between Italy
and the Bernese Oberland. In 1397 representatives from the
Oberland met those from the Val d'Ossola at Miinster (the chief
village in the uppermost reach of the Upper Vallais) in order to
arrange a commercial treaty for the trade between their respec-
tive districts, including the question of making or keeping up

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 173

the mule paths across the two passes. No doubt this commerce
grew much when the Val d'Ossola was held by the Swiss, though
even later (that is, after 151 5) it went on for a time. But then
it passed away to the Antrona Pass, and, in some degree, to the
Simplon Pass. Yet even nowadays the Gries is often crossed
by the natives of both slopes, who thus save the great detour by
the Simplon.

As we have just spoken of the Grimsel, it is perhaps best to
clear off that pass, and four others, all traversing the range N. of
the Vallais, before going on to the pass in the Central Alps, the
St. Gotthard.

The Grimsel Pass (7100 ft.) is the easiest route from the
Bernese Oberland to the Upper Vallais, and so has been
frequented from very early times. In 1211 it was crossed by
troops, and again in 141 9, in both cases by the Bernese making
a raid into the Vallais. The famous Hospice at the foot of the
last ascent on the N. slope of the pass is first mentioned in
1479, but undoubtedly existed long before, for in 1382 the
men of Hasle bought from the Bernese family of Bubenberg
the Alpine pastures at the head of the Aar valley — both Hospice
and pastures remained the property of the Hasle folk till 1902,
when they were sold to the then lessee of the Hospice. For
centuries a mule path alone traversed the pass, which was (as
pointed out above) the first link in the trade route between the
Oberland and Italy (over the Gries). But in 1895 the splendid
new carriage road across it was opened — this descends (for the
benefit of summer travellers) to the foot of the Rhone Glacier,
whence the Furka Pass (7992 ft.) leads over to Uri ; but the old
historical paved mule path still exists from the top of the
Grimsel to the Rhone valley at Obergestelen, nearly opposite
the Eginen valley, through which runs the Gries Pass route.

A good way to the W. of the Grimsel the main ridge of the
Bernese Alps is crossed by several minor historical passes — such
as the Sanetsch Pass (7331 ft.), leading from the head of the Saane
or Sarine valley to Sion, which is also attained by ih&Rawil Pass
(7924 ft.) from that of the Simme. More important historically
are two passes some distance to the E. of these — the Lbtschen

174 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Pass (8842 ft.), and to its W. the far better known Gemmi Pass
(7641 ft.) The Lotschen Pass leads from the Rhone valley by
the Lotschen valley to Kandersteg, above Frutigen ; at Kander-
steg the route joins that over the Gemmi, which has come from
the Rhone valley through the Dala glen and past the celebrated
hot springs of Leukerbad. Both passes are mentioned early.
The Lotschen Pass had a cross on it (and so must have been
well known) in 1352, and was probably the route by which (as
narrated in Chapter vii.) a colony from the Lotschen valley was
transported early in the fourteenth century to the head of the
Lauterbrunnen valley. Though there is a glacier on the summit
of the pass, it is very easily crossed, which accounts for the fact
that in 1384 and again in 1419 and in 1656 battles between the
Bernese and the Vallaisans took place on the summit of the
pass. As the Lotschen Pass was for centuries much easier to
cross than the Gemmi, all local commerce passed over it. In
1698, after many delays, a paved mule track was constructed on
the Bernese slope of the pass, and traces of it are still visible.
But the Vallaisans would not build the road on their side of
the pass, fearing that thus Protestant influences might penetrate
into their region. After the Gemmi path was rendered better,
the Lotschen Pass lost much of its practical importance. But
one of the most recent schemes for piercing a tunnel beneath
the Bernese Alps has selected the Lotschen Pass, which may
thus, in a way, regain much of its old position. We hear of the
Gemmi Pass, under the Romance name of 'Curmilz' or ' Curmyz '
in 1252 and 13 18, from which it appears that the great plain
extending N. from the crest towards the Frutigen valley, and
the Hospice or inn thereon situated (now known as Schwaren-
bach) were already within the limits of the Vallais (though
physically within those of Berne) as they are to this day. As
early as 1544 we have a most thrilling account (by Sebastian
Mlinster, the geographer) of his traverse of the pass, and of the
horrors of the bad path from Leukerbad to the pass. Later we
read that by this bad track a horse could only carry half a proper
load, while every cow (on its way to the pastures) required a
man to itself. Hence in 17 40-1 a band of Tyrolese workmen

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 175

was employed to improve the path {not to construct it for the
first time, as is often said), and that path, with further improve-
ments, is the winding track so well known to every Swiss
traveller. In 1742 the inn at Schwarenbach was built, but
was destroyed next year by an avalanche, and reconstructed
next year in a more sheltered position. It should perhaps be
added that the derivation of the name of the pass from
' gemitus' (groans) has no authority to support it and is purely
fanciful. Probably the name is a Teutonised form of the
Romance name under which the pass is first mentioned.

We now come to the St. Gotthard (6936 ft.), which, ever since
it was opened up, has been the principal pass in the Central
Alps. Its topographical position is perhaps unequalled save
by that of the Brenner. A single river-valley (that of the
Reuss) leads up to it on the N. slope from the plains of N.
Switzerland, while another valley of similar character (that of
the Ticino) leads down on the S. slope straight to the Italian
Lakes and to the rich plains of Lombardy. At its N. foot easy
passes facilitate communications with the head of the Rhine
valley (by the Oberalp Pass, 6719 ft.) and with that of the
Rhone (by the Ftirka Pass, 7992 ft.), while lower down the
Reuss valley the Susten Pass (7422 ft.) leads W. to the Bernese
Oberland, and the Ktausen Pass (6404 ft.) E. to Glarus. On
the S. side the routes from the great Rsetian passes join that
of the St. Gotthard as this nears the Italian plains. One great
physical drawback the St. Gotthard has, however, always
suffered from, and that, no doubt, accounts for the relatively late
appearance of the pass in history — both the Reuss and the
Ticino valleys are very rugged and very narrow, and so the
tracks through them are exposed to great dangers, though to
realise this nowadays one must not content oneself with merely
sitting in a through train from Lucerne to Milan, but cross the
pass on foot. These obstacles could only be overcome by the
aid of time and patience, but when overcome, the prosperous
future of the pass was secured. Its fortunes, too, have had an
enormous influence on those of Lucerne, its starting-point on
the N., for the opening of the mule path (about 1293), of the

1/6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

carriage road (1820-1830), and of the tunnel (1882) have
marked successive great steps forward in the commercial im-
portance of that town.

Despite all endeavours it has not yet been found possible to
discover a certain mention of the pass before 1236, when
Albert, abbat of Stade (not far from Hamburg), in his Chronicle,
describes the route over the pass which he himself seems to
have taken on his return from Rome (which he had reached by
way of the Mont Cenis). The route is indicated, and the pass
is mentioned by Abbat Albert under the name of ' mons
Elvelinus, which the Lombards call Ursare' (Ursern). The
name St. Gotthard first occurs in the great enumeration (drawn
up in the first years of the fourteenth century) of the Habs-
burg possessions in Switzerland and Alsace, and the mule path
over (as well as the earliest traders) is first mentioned in 1293,
while the chapel and Hospice, or toll-house, on the summit are not
expressly mentioned till 133 1. Such are the certainly ascertained
facts — there have been many conjectures and ingenious theories
as to all these matters, but none has as yet even attempted to
push back the opening of this pass earlier than 12 18. Very
probably, nay, certainly, the various facts mentioned existed
earlier, but one cannot assign to them any earlier certain and
fixed dates. But there is no doubt that in the fourteenth
century the pass was well known and frequently traversed, being
the great route by which merchandise passed through Switzer-
land between Germany and Italy, while in the fifteenth century
it much facilitated the conquest of the Italian bailiwicks by the
Swiss of which we have spoken in Chapter vii. It is noteworthy,
however, that no mediaeval Emperor seems ever to have crossed
our pass, the historical importance of which, till our own time,
has been commercial and not political (save to a very small
extent), in striking contrast to the Mont Cenis.

The greatest obstacle on the N. side of the pass was the
SchoUenen gorge just below Andermatt and above Goschenen
(it is avoided by the railway). Not to speak of the legends
connected with the old Devil's Bridge (which fell in 1888), the
problem was how to overcome the rocky slopes above it, in

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 177

order to reach the basin in which Andermatt stands. In the
Habsburg ' terrier ' of the early fourteenth century (see above) we
find a mention of the ' stiebende Briicke ' (the ' spray-washed '
bridge), which was a narrow wooden terrace about 200 ft. long, and
suspended, at a great height above the rushing Reuss, by chains
on the precipitous rocky mountain face. Save a rough path
above the other bank of the Reuss, this frail bridge (which had
to be constantly renewed) was for ages the sole means of access
to Andermatt direct from Lucerne. It hung on the outer wall
of the short tunnel called the ' Urnerloch,' which was only
pierced in 1707, and made wide enough for carriages in 1830.
Schiller, in his play William Tell (1804), first confounds the
' stiebend Briicke ' with the Devil's Bridge, and then makes the
' Urnerloch ' exist at the same time — two poetical anachronisms.
As early as July 25, 1775, an enterprising English traveller, Mr.
Greville, the mineralogist, succeeded in crossing the pass in a
light chaise, without taking his conveyance to pieces : Saussure
records how he met this adventurous spirit the same even-
ing at the Hospice. But it was not till 1820-1830 that the
carriage road was constructed over the pass to meet the rivalry
of those then built over the San Bernardino and the Spliigen,
while the great railway tunnel was pierced in 187 2-1 880, and,
with the railway lines leading to it, was opened for traffic
in 1882.

The name of the pass is taken from that of a Bishop of
Hildesheim, who died in 1038 and was canonised in 1132.
The only reason that has as yet been discovered for this curious
dedication is the fact that in Milan the festival of that saint
(May 4) was (according to the city statutes of 121 5) a 'red
letter ' day, on which courts did not sit, while in the same
city there is a church (built 1 328-1 339) bearing his name, San
Gottardo in Corte (in the ducal palace). A better Hospice on
the summit was built in 143 1 in order to house the Archbishop
of Milan (to whom the S. side of the pass, as well as part of
the N. slope, belonged) on his way to the Council of Bale, and
in 1496 we hear that it was inhabited by a lay brother. St.
Charles Borromeo (Archbishop of Milan, 1 560-1 584) intended
M

178 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

to enlarge both, but it was only in 1623 that a better house
was built for the priest, and in 1683 a new Hospice, which was
intrusted to the care of a few Capuchins, of whom all travellers
speak with grateful recognition. An avalanche in 1775
destroyed all the buildings save the Hospice itself, while the
reconstructed buildings, besides the chapel, perished at the
hands of the French in 1799. The new Hospice was only
erected in 1834, but was burnt in 1905, though no doubt it
will soon be rebuilt. The hotel opposite it was built in 1867,
and did not perish in the fire of 1905. From Airolo, at the
S. foot of the pass, the easy San Giacomo Pass (7573 ft.) leads
over to Tosa Falls on the Gries Pass route, and thus connects
the St. Gotthard with the Simplon.

This is perhaps the best place at which to insert a short
notice of some minor lateral passes in the Central Alps, which
indirectly owe their historical fame to the St. Gotthard. In
late September 1799 Suvorofif, with a considerable (21,000 men)
Russian arnw, succeeded in forcing the passage of the
St. Gotthard against the French. He desired to join the
other Russian army, at or near Zurich. But, having reached
Altdorf, he found his way blocked, for the French had seized
all the boats on the Lake of Lucerne, and no road then existed
along the E. shore of the lake. He was therefore forced to
cross (September 27-8) the Kinzigkulm Fass (681 1 ft.) to
the head of the Muota valley. But his progress down that
valley towards Schwyz was stopped after a bloody battle with
the French. So he had again to ' double back ' and to cross
(last days of September and first of October) the Pragel Fass
(5099 ft.) to Glarus, hoping thence to follow the Linth or
Limmat valley direct to Zurich. But he was once more foiled
by the French commanders and compelled to cross yet a third
pass (October 5-6), the Fanixer Fass (7897 ft.), in order to gain
the Rhine valley, above Coire, and so was able to rejoin his
friends at Feldkirch, two days later. None of these passes
(all well known to the present \vriter) is in itself really difficult,
save the steep N. side of the Panixer, but they offer great
obstacles to the passage of a considerable army, harassed by

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 179

a watchful enemy, and much hindered by the bad weather of
a stormy autumn, so that Suvoroff's feat is one of the most
remarkable recorded in the military history of the Alps.

The next pass over the main chain on our list is the
Lukmanier (6289 ft.), leading from the great Benedictine
monastery of Disentis, near the head of the Vorder Rhine
valley, by the Middle Rhine valley and the Val Blenio to
Biasca, on the St. Gotthard route. But, save for a short time
in the nineteenth century (1839-1880), when it was doubtful
whether the great railway tunnel beneath the Central Alps
should be pierced under the Lukmanier or the St. Gotthard,
the Lukmanier has always been overshadowed by its greater
neighbours, so that its real historical importance relates to the
period when these rivals were little known or traversed by
bad roads or paths. However it was crossed by Otto i. in 965
and by Henry 11. in 1004, as well as by Frederick i. in 1146
and again in 1186, and by Sigismund in 143 1 (perhaps in
141 3 also) — we thus again come across the Emperor whom we
heard of on the Great St. Bernard. About 1374 the reigning
abbat of Disentis (who in 1570 became a Prince of the
Empire) built two Hospices (there were five in all) on the route,
one, that of Santa Maria, being on the summit of the pass —
it still exists as a modest inn, and the pass is thence sometimes
named the ' Pass of St. Mary ' ; another name for the pass is
the ' Pass of St. Barnabas,' owing to its close connection with
the see of Milan, to which the Val Blenio, like the Val
Leventina, belonged, and also to the dedication of one of the
Hospices, this one being situated at Casaccia on the E. slope of
the pass. But the foundation of these Hospices by the abbat
of Disentis emphasises the character of our pass, as, after the
opening of the St. Gotthard, a feeble rival of that great highway,
but especially useful for the Rsetians as a means of communica-
tion with their Swiss allies in the Italian bailiwicks, after their
conquest in the fifteenth century. In 1 581 St. Charles Borromeo
crossed the Lukmanier. As early as 1780 the abbat of Disentis
began the construction of a road across his pass. But there
were formidable technical difficulties in the gorge through which

i8o THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

(or above which) one must mount from Disentis to Curaglia,
the first village. Finally, a remarkable road through this gorge
and across to Olivone, at the head of the Val Blenio, was
constructed 187 1-7, but, though well worthy of being seen, it
has failed to attract tourists. The Lukmanier is now quite off
the main line of traffic, serving only as a local route, the
St. Gotthard having drawn to itself most of the traffic (never
a very great stream) that dribbled over the Lukmanier.

We come next to the three passes which lead direct from
Coire to Italy, which is reached at Como by the San Bernardino,
but at Chiavenna by the Spliigen and the Septimer.

The San Bernardino (6769 ft.) route, like that of the Spliigen,
follows the course of the main or Hinter Rhine nearly to its
sources, and then turns S. to cross the Alps. Throughout the
entire Middle Ages it bore the name of the 'mons avium,'
' Vogelberg,' or ' Monte Uccello ' {i.e. the ^ pass of the birds,'
in three languages), and to this day there rises some way to
its W. a peak called the Vogelberg, while on the E. the pass is
overhung by another point, named the Pizzo Uccello. But
some time in the second half of the fifteenth century, this
name gave way to the present one, given in honour of San
Bernardino of Siena, who had wandered through the N. parts
of Lombardy as a missionary preacher and was canonised in
1450, six years after his death — a chapel on the S. slope of the
pass was dedicated to him. It is possible that the left wing of
the Frankish army crossed this pass in 590 on its w-ay to attack
the Lombards. More certain is it that in the winter of 941 Willa
(wife of Berengar, Marquess of Ivrea), though far advanced in
pregnancy, fled across it, to escape from Hugh, king of Italy.
Much later, in the winter of 1799, Lecourbe, with a French
army, traversed the pass. But no doubt, it, like the Spliigen,
was kept for long in the background through the difficulties of
getting through or round the Via Mala gorge, above Thusis.
Probably it served only the local traffic between the German-
speaking colony at the sources of the Rhine with the Italian
bailiwicks held by the Swiss, especially after, in 1496, the Val
Mesocco (on its S. slope) came into the hands of the Ra3tians,

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES i8i

who thus had direct access to the St. Gotthard route. In
1818-1823 the present fine carriage road was built over the
pass, and, like that of the St. Gotthard, lies for its whole
length within Swiss territory. Most of the expenses were
borne by the king of Sardinia, who wished to secure for him-
self a road across the Alps, which should not be in the hands
of the Habsburgers.

A little to the E. of the San Bernardino is the Splilgen Pass
(6946 ft.). Though possibly mentioned by the Peutinger Table
(fourth century) under the still unexplained name of ' Cunu
aureu,' this pass has scarcely had a more eventful history than
the San Bernardino, both having been overshadowed (till
carriage roads were built across them) by the Septimer. Its
mediaeval name was the ' Urschler ' (mount of bears), perhaps
given in contrast to the ' mount of birds ' or the San Bernardino.
The first rough road which traversed the S. bit of the Via
Mala was constructed as far back as 1473, apparently with
the desire to set up a rival to the route over the Septimer,
that was entirely in the hands of the Bishop of Coire. But
the Via Mala was only rendered practicable throughout, when,
1818-1823, the road was constructed over the pass itself; the
chief difficulty, apart from that gorge, was the Cardenello gorge
on the S. side, where, in the early winter of 1800, the French,
under Marshal Macdonald, encountered very great difficulties.
This road increased the number of travellers who crossed the
pass (the commercial importance of which was never great
despite the almost total absence of tolls), for, even to-day, it is
(with the exceptions of the rather longer San Bernardino and
the much longer Lukmanier) the one carriage road by which
it is possible to go from Rstia (the Grisons) to Italy, crossing
one ridge only (the roads through the Engadine involve the
passage of two ridges, while the Septimer has never yet obtained
a carriage road). The valley of San Giacomo, on the S. side
of the pass, is now Italian, but from 151 2 to 1797 (with
Chiavenna) it belonged to the Three Rsetian Leagues who had
taken it from the Milanese — it had formed part of the Cisalpine
or Italian Republics from 1797 to 1805, and of the Napoleonic

i82 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

kingdom of Italy from 1805 to 1814, when it fell (with Chiavenna
etc.) to the Habsburgers of Milan, who only lost it in 1859 to
the Sardinian king soon to rule over united Italy.

By far the most important historically of all the Grisons
Alpine passes is the Septinier {^']^Z2 ft.), though nowadays it is
hardly known even by name. Yet in 1128 it was reported
(not quite accurately) to be the mountain in which both the
Rhine and the Inn take their source ; it is mentioned in the
thirteenth century by the poet Gottfried of Strassburg in his
Tristan, and in 1330 it was said to mark the limit between
Germany and Lombardy, while early in the fourteenth century
it was noted as one of the boundaries of the possessions
of the Habsburgers. In itself it is an extremely easy pass,
leading from Bivio-Stalla (not far from the W. foot of the
Julier Pass) to Casaccia, at the W. foot of the Maloja, and the
highest village in the Val Bregaglia, down which one goes
direct to Chiavenna. It is also easily reached from both sides.
On the N. slope, there were two routes from Coire to Bivio-
Stalla — the more arduous led by a path from Thusis over the
slopes N. of the gorge now known as the Schyn Pass to
Tiefenkastell, where it was joined by the easier, which had
come from Coire past the twelfth century Premonstratensian
monastery of Churwalden and over the Lenzerheide (a great
tract of heath), 5089 ft. ; both routes thus avoided the horrors
of the Via Mala by which the Spliigen and the San Bernardino
were necessarily attained. From Bivio the slope giving access
to the pass is gradual, while the descent on the S. side to
Casaccia, though steeper than the ascent, is short and direct,
the fertile Val Bregaglia being soon gained. It was thus not
necessary to cross more than one ridge on the journey, while
(and herein lay the great practical advantage of the pass) the
entire route from Coire till near Chiavenna (as well as to that
town and down to the head of the Lake of Como, from 15 12 to
1797) was in the hands (directly or through his vassals) of the
Bishop of Coire, the most powerful of the many Rjetian feudal
lords. It was therefore the interest of the bishop to facilitate
the transit across this pass, as thereby he (or his guarantees)

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 183

obtained more revenues from tolls and way dues. It is there-
fore not surprising to hear that in 1359 the reigning bishop (who
happened to be the Imperial Chancellor) prevailed on the
Emperor Charles iv. to issue a formal prohibition to use any
other Alpine road in the region but this.

Tlie pass is mentioned in Roman times by both the Antonine
Itinerary and the Peutinger Table. The first recorded passage
was that of Landulus, Bishop of Treviso, in 895, while in the
same year we hear of two Roman musicians, who crossed on
their way from Rome to St. Gall (to improve the church music
there), one of whom fell very ill on the way over the pass.
Many Emperors traversed this pass, the number being only
exceeded by those w-ho took the route by the Brenner or by
the Great St. Bernard. In fact, in the earlier Middle Ages the
Septimer was the great route from Germany into Italy. The
first mention of a Hospice (never a large one) on the pass dates
from 831, but it was refounded in the early twelfth century by
the Bishop of Coire, and rebuilt in 1542: it is now in ruins,
though there is some idea of reconstructing it for the use of
skiers, the new sort of winter pilgrims in this region. Remains
of a solidly built paved track are found at various points on
the route over this pass. It was long thought that they dated
back to Roman times, but it has now been shown that they
formed part of the new cart track constructed in 1387 by Jacob
von Castelmur, a high episcopal official (and grantee of the
tolls over the pass) in the Val Bregaglia. The tolls levied on
this route produced great sums. But naturally, after the
construction, in the first half of the nineteenth century, of good
carriage roads over the Spliigen, the San Bernardino, the
Julier, and the Maloja, the great advantage of the Septimer
disappeared, and the pass is now visited only by a few curious
wanderers. Yet, in its time, it was more than a rival of the
greatest Alpine passes.

As hinted above, the passes leading to and from the
Engadine have merely a local interest, save the Qfen, with the
Fliiela, its continuation, and (in the Eastern Alps) the Reschen
Scheideck. Even the opening (1903) of the railway under

i84 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the Albula Pass (7595 ft.) meant simply an easier route to the
Engadine, and not the opening of a great international route
across the Alps, and the same will be true when a line is
constructed over the Maloja Pass (5935 ft.) from the head
of the Engadine to Chiavenna. As there still exist many
misapprehensions on the subject, it may be worth while to
explain the real historical origin of the two rude pillars called
Julius' columns, which stand on the summit of the Julier Pass
(7504 ft.). It is known that in 1396 and 1407 a single column
rose here, as a boundary stone, that between 1538 and 1572
it was broken into three bits, that one of these bits disappeared
in some unknown fashion, and that some time between 16 18
and 1703 another bit was set up as a second column — these
dates are taken from contemporary writers who either visited
the pass themselves or had trustworthy reports from those
who had been there. The natural continuation of the Julier
is either the Maloja to Chiavenna, or the Bernina Pass
(7645 ft.) to the Valtelline.

In the tangled country E. of the Bernina Pass the Passo di
Val Viola (7976 ft.) leads from near the summit of the Bernina
Pass to Bormio. But more important historically, in connection
with Rohan's campaign of 1635 against the Imperial troops, are
the passes leading from the Livigno valley (still Italian, though
on the N. slope of the Alps and sending its waters by the Spol
to the Inn at Zernetz) in various directions — the Forcola di
Livig?io (7638 ft.) S. to the Bernina Pass, the Casana Pass
(8832 ft.) W. to Scanfs, in the Upper Engadine, and the
Alpisella Pass (7497 ft.) E. past the sources of the Adda and
through the Fraele glen to Bormio.

Let us now go on to the Ofen Pass (7071 ft.) which leads
from Zernetz in the Lower Engadine to the Miinster valley, and
so on to the Vintschgau or upper valley of the Adige in the
Tyrol, while from Siis, in the Lower Engadine, about four miles
below Zernetz, the Flikla Pass (7838 ft.) leads over to Davos,
and then down the Landquart valley to the Rhine valley,
which is gained about nine miles above Coire. These two
passes thus formed a direct and comparatively easy route from

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 185

Coire to the Tyrol, even after, in 1652, the Lower Engadine
ceased to be Tyrolese, and became Swiss. By means of the
second pass in particular, the Bishop of Coire was long able
to maintain his authority in the Vintschgau, and in the
Miinster valley. This route was possibly taken in 12 12 by the
Emperor Frederick 11. (who more probably went by way of the
Tonale, Aprica, and Septimer Passes), and by Sigismund in
141 3. But of course it was rather out of the way, lying as it
did between the far more frequented tracks over the Septimer,
the Umbrail Pass, and the Brenner. The Ofen Pass takes its
name from some iron mines ('ovens' or 'Fuorn,' furnaces)
worked near it in the sixteenth century and earlier, but is often
wrongly called the Buffalora Pass, that name properly belonging
to another pass (7723 ft., also called Giufplan) that leads to
Bormio through the Fraele glen. The road over the Ofen was
built in 1870-1, and that over the Fliiela in 1867, but the inn
near the Ofen Pass was well known in the sixteenth century,
while the Hospice on the Fliiela is also far older than the
carriage road. Still farther down the Lower Engadine is the
easy glacier Fernwnt Pass (9193 ft.), formerly much frequented
and leading from Guarda in the Lower Engadine to the head of
the Montafon valley in the Vorarlberg, and so to Bludenz
on the Arlberg route, or across the lower Bielerhohe Pass
(6631 ft.) to the Tyrolese Paznaun valley, and so to
Landeck.

Our last pass in the Central Alps is the Umbrail Pass (8242
ft.), which of old bore also the names of 'mons Braulius'
(from St. Braulius, Bishop of Saragossa, in the seventh century)
and of 'Juga Raetica,' as well as of 'Wormserjoch' {i.e. the
pass to Bormio, the German name of which is 'Worms'). It
leads from the head of the Adige valley or the Vintschgau by
the Miinster valley to Bormio, at the head of the Adda valley or
the Valtelline. On the S. side a short descent gives access at
the fourth Cantoniera to the route over the Stelvio Pass or
Stilfserjoch (9055 ft.). But as the N. slope of the Stelvio is very
steep and rugged, while that of the Umbrail is comparatively
easy, the last named was, throughout the Middle Ages, the main

i86 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

route from the Vintschgau direct to the Lake of Como. The
Stelvio was, indeed, crossed now and then by armies (1496,
1 63 1, 1634,) but served as a pass only in case of necessity.
The roles of the two passes were reversed, at any rate for a time,
when the Austrian Government (which had in 181 4 received the
Valtelline, while in 1762 it had parted with the upper Miinster
valley to Switzerland) built (1820-5) the magnificent carriage
road over the Stelvio, which is still the loftiest carriage road in
the Alps. Much more recently the Swiss Government has con-
structed ( 1 900-1) a good carriage road over the Umbrail from
the Miinster valley to the fourth Cantoniera on the Stelvio,
such a road having been planned (it is said) by Napoleon, who
selected that route rather than the Stelvio : this road is the
third highest carriage road in the Alps (it is the highest in
Switzerland), that over the Col du GaHbier (8721 ft.), in the
Dauphine Alps, coming between it and the Stelvio. By a
curious coincidence none of these three passes traverses the
main ridge of the Alps, each leading over one of its lateral spurs.
It should be borne in mind that between 1762 (purchase of the
upper Miinster valley) and 1797 (loss of the Valtelline), the
whole way over the Umbrail belonged to the Three Rstian
Leagues, that is, practically to Switzerland. Now, of course,
since 1859, the S. slope of that pass, as well as of the Stelvio, is
Italian. The Umbrail Pass served mainly the local trade
between the Vintschgau and the Valtelline. But it obtained
considerable political importance during the long struggle, 1620-
1639 (briefly noticed in Chapter vii.), for the Valtelline, the valley
which enabled the Habsburgers of the Tyrol to communicate
directly with the Habsburgers of Milan. Naturally, the com-
mercial importance of both the Umbrail and of the Stelvio was
practically destroyed when in 1864-7, the wholly Austrian railway
was opened over the Brenner Pass, as the Vintschgau trade of
course flowed E.S.E. down the Adige valley to Botzen, on that
line, while that of the Valtelline (Italian since 1859) as natur-
ally found its outlet westwards in the direction of the Lake of
Como. But in the Middle Ages the Umbrail was the great
route between the aforesaid regions, and indeed to districts

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 187

more to the N. by way of the Reschen Scheideck and the
Arlberg Passes, of which we will speak presently.

III. — The Eastern Alps

In this division of the great Alpine chain the Brentier Pass
(4495 ft.) occupies a position of far greater importance than
does any single pass in either the Western or the Central Alps.
Many of the other passes in the Eastern Alps (such as the
Reschen Scheideck, the Arlberg, the Tonale, the Aprica, even
the Ampezzo, and the Plocken) stand to it in the light of
feeders or branches, and can scarcely claim an independent
position of their own. The case only alters as we get still
farther E., when the Alps spread out (to use a comparison
already employed in these pages) like the sticks of a fan, so that
the traveller, after leaving the plains of Italy, and before reach-
ing those of Austria, has to cross three ridges — the first by the
Ampezzo, the Monte Croce (Plocken), the Pontebba (Saifnitz),
or the Predil Passes ; the second by the Radstadter Tauern ;
and the third by the Pyhrn Pass or through the Lueg gorge.
Finally, at the extreme E. limit of these ridges we find the
Birnbaumer Wald and the Semmering, both rather methods of
getting round the last spurs of the Alps than of crossing them,
and so parallel with the route from Genoa to Marseilles along
the edge of the Mediterranean, rather than with Alpine passes
strictly so called.

The history of the Brenner Pass is almost co-extensive mth
that of the Eastern Alps, or of the relations between Germany
and Italy, whether they be looked at from a political, a com-
mercial, or a military point of view. By far the lowest of all the
Alpine passes across the main chain of the Alps, reached on
either side by straight-drawn valleys leading up to a single
ridge, it forms a natural highway over the Alps. Its authentic
recorded history starts with the passage (b.c. 15) of Drusus, the
stepson of Augustus, on his way to conquer the northern Bar-
barians, and among them the tribe of the Breones, or Breuni,

iS8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

which gave its name for ever to the pass, and had its name em-
balmed in the verses of Horace. Later on, the Brenner became
a great route by means of which the Romans pursued and
attained many mihtary and commercial successes. Most pro-
bably it was the pass over which the Barbarians poured in the
fifth century towards the fertile plains of Italy, and (as pointed
out at the commencement of this chapter) the route 'per Alpes
Noricas' (our pass without a doubt) was expressly mentioned
by Charles the Great when elaborating in 806 his scheme for
the division of his Empire among his sons. Still later, it was
over the Brenner that the vast majority of the Emperors went on
their way to or from Rome, so that on at least one-half of
these expeditions (dating from the ninth to the fifteenth cen-
turies) the route selected was that over our pass. Gradually, as
minor feudal lords gave way to the dynasty of the Counts of the
Tyrol, the Brenner became more and more a specifically Tyrolese
pass, especially when in 1363 the county of the Tyrol passed into
the hands of the powerful family of the Habsburgers. Being
thus held by a single dynasty, capable of pushing its interests,
this great highway, though it lost in a way its character as a
route open to all nations, yet prospered because of the atten-
tion that its new owners devoted to improving the means of
communication across it. The quaint old track, constructed
(or at any rate greatly improved) between 13 14-17 by the
enterprising Heinrich Kunter, burgher of Botzen, meant that
the old Roman path high above the gorges between Klausen
and Botzen was abandoned in favour of a path in the Eisack
valley itself. Yet this new track was very rough and bad, so
that not unfrequently travellers preferred the short cut from the
Brenner over the Jaufen Pass, 6870 ft. (called, like the Great
St. Bernard, ' mons Jovis ' — in the Middle Ages the name took
the form of ' Jouven '), which was probably known to the
Romans, to the Adige valley that was reached at Meran.
Further, the rise of the Venetian power on the mainland in the
early fifteenth century threatened the prosperity of the Brenner,
for the route naturally preferred by the Venetian rulers was that
over the Ampezzo Pass (5066 ft.), by Belluno, the Piave valley,

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 189

and past Cortina to Toblach, close to the Toblach Pass{i^e^ ft.)
leading from the Brenner route to the head of the Drave valley.
That road kept the merchants on their journeys for the longest
distance in Venetian territory, while it was early passable for
light carriages and carts. Hence from 1483 onwards the old
Kunter track was greatly improved by Sigismund, the reigning
Count of the Tyrol, gunpowder being employed to remove
various obstacles, so that this track also became passable for
carriages and carts. His efforts were seconded, towards the
N., by the rulers of Bavaria. But it was not till much later, in
1772, that a modern carriage road was constructed across the
pass. Naturally, after the Habsburgers secured (1803, finally
1814) the territories of the Bishops of Trent and Brixen, still
more attention was paid to our pass, which now became a most
important means of communication between Austria proper and
the Milanese and the Veneto, held from 18 15 onwards by the
sovereigns of Austria. Yet when this political convenience
had ceased to be of practical interest (the Milanese and the W.
Veneto were lost to Austria in 1859 and the E. Veneto in
1866), the commercial advantages of the pass were such that,
between 1864 and 1867, ^ railway was constructed across it,
this being the first line carried over the Alps, while the carriage
road of 1772 had also been the first of its kind.

Something must now be said as to the side passes which we
have described above as ' feeders ' or branches of the great high-
A^ay of the Brenner,

{a) To the W. there are two pairs of passes, each item of
which taken alone has but local importance, though if the two
composing each pair are crossed, a route is more or less made
to the other side of certain mountain chains.

The first pair is made up of the Tonale Pass (61S1 ft.)
and of the Aprica Pass (3875 ft.). The road over the former
leaves the Adige valley a little to the N. of Trent in order to
mount the Noce valley (called in its lower half the Val di Non
or Nonsberg, and in its upper half, the Val di Sole or Sulzberg)
past Cles (where falls in the road from Botzen over the Mendel
Pass, 4462 ft.) to the pass (not far from which, on the old

I90 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

track, is the Hospice of St. Bartholomew, founded in 1127),
whence it descends to Edolo, at the head of the Val Camonica
or of the OgHo, that runs down to the Lake of Iseo. From
Edolo the low Aprica Pass gives access to the Valtelline, which
is reached a little below Tirano. Any one who combines these
two passes finds that he must cross yet another, such as the
Septimer, in order to reach the N. slope of the Alps. But
formerly the practical convenience of this route was that it lay
entirely, save the bits near Edolo (which are in the Bergamasca,
and so were Venetian 1428-1797, and Austrian 1815-1859)
within the dominions of the Prince-bishops of Trent and Coire.
Hence it would naturally be taken by any traveller who found
the Brenner blocked to him, but enjoyed the friendship of
either or both. Such seems to have been the case of the
Emperor Frederick 11. in 1212, who apparently crossed these
two passes on the way from Trent to Coire, being accompanied
in his hurried journey by the bishops of these two cities.
Apparently Frederick i. in 11 66 did the same, but Charles iv.
in 1355 crossed the Aprica only, while in 1327 Louis the
Bavarian went from Trent to Bergamo over the Tonale.

The second pair of passes is formed by those of the Reschen
Scheideck (4902 ft.) and the Arlberg (5912 ft.). The former
leads from Botzen past Meran through the Vintschgau or upper
Adige valley to the Inn valley, that is descended to Landeck on
the Arlberg route, which thence bears due W. and reaches the
Rhine valley at Feldkirch, some way S. of Bregenz. The
former pass taken alone is simply a parallel way to that over
the Brenner, while the second, if taken alone, is the direct road
from Innsbruck to the Vorarlberg. Combined, they form a rather
more direct route, from Botzen to Constance, than the Brenner,
The Reschen Scheideck is now usually known by that name.
But formerly it was often called the ' Malserheide,' from the
great heathy tract on its S. slope, above the ancient town of
Mais, while another name, that of Finstermiinz Pass, was
derived from the narrow gorge at its N. foot, through which it
was necessary to pass from Martinsbruck (now the last hamlet
in the Swiss Lower Engadine, but till 1652 in the Tyrol) to

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 191

Pfunds (at its E. end), now reached direct from the pass
itself by a splendidly engineered road, carried high above
the gorge. An ancient tower in the gorge proves its early
importance, as formerly one had to pass it, along the bank of the
wild Inn, here enclosed between two lofty rock walls. The
Hospice of St. Valentine on the Reschen Scheideck was
founded in 1140, but on the very summit of the pass there is
now a village, Reschen, inhabited all the year round. This
pass was of historical importance in the Middle Ages, when the
Bishop of Coire was struggling to maintain his footing in the
Vintschgau against the rising power of the Counts of the Tyrol.
On the other hand, the Arlberg (first mentioned in 1218 as a
frequented pass) acquired more importance at a later period,
especially after 1363, when the Habsburgers obtained the
Tyrol, and then added to their domains first (1375) Feldkirch,
then (1394) Bludenz and the Montafon valley, and finally (145 1
and 1523) the county of Bregenz, thus establishing their power
firmly in the district ' before ' the Arlberg Pass (when looked
at from the point of view of a traveller on his way to Innsbruck)
on the right bank of the Rhine, between Coire and the Lake
of Constance. It has been contended that the Arlberg was
traversed by a Roman road, but this view does not seem to
be supported by sufficient evidence. Yet as early as 945
Berengar 11., king of Italy, seems to have crossed both our
passes on his way from Swabia to Botzen. A mule path
was built over the Arlberg in 1309, and the Hospice of St.
Christopher founded in 1385, the chief utility of the pass
being the transport of salt from the mines of Hall near Inns-
bruck. This path must have been improved by 1414, when we
hear that the Pope John xxiii., on the way to the Council of
Constance, had the misfortune to have his light carriage upset,
and so was thrown out into the snow (it was the month of
October). In 1499 ^.nd again during the Wars of 1632-4
efforts were made to improve the track, but they were simply
sporadic and led to no permanent results. The actual carriage
road was constructed at intervaL between 1785 and 1824
(though improved in 1848-9) to meet the competition of the

192 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Swiss, who desired to divert traffic from Feldkirch to the
Thurgau, while the railway which burrows beneath the pass was
built in 1880-4. But it may be stated generally that, till recently,
the Arlberg was mainly a ' salt pass,' and comparatively little
attention was paid to the maintenance of the track, particularly
on the W, or Vorarlberg side. Two curious results of this want
of enterprise may be noted. On the one hand, the rise of the
flourishing cotton-spinning industry in the Vorarlberg (the
raw material coming from Trieste) dates from the final construc-
tion (from 1785 onwards) of a road over the pass. But on the
other hand, the bad state of that road (especially on the W.
side) is credibly believed to have been largely responsible for
the steady refusal (even as lately as 1848 and 185 9- 1860) of the
Vorarlbergers to consent to a close political union with the
Tyrol, with which they are only joined by a slight administrative
tie, though reasons of practical convenience would seem to make
the complete incorporation of the Vorarlberg with the Tyrol a
very desirable object.

The Arlberg Pass, besides directly connecting the Inn and the
Rhine valleys, and so the routes that pass by Innsbruck and
Coire, join both to the Bavarian plains and Munich by means
of the Fer7i Pass (3970 ft.) and of Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass
(3874 ft.), which thus act as 'feeders.'

{b) To the E. of the Brenner there is another pair of side
passes, of which we must now speak. Of one of these, the
Ampezzo Pass (5066 ft.), leading from Belluno by Cortina to
Toblach, mention has been made above. Its importance rose
with the advance of Venetian power on the mainland in the
early fifteenth century, for it was the most direct route from
Venice towards the N.W., and Central Germany. As it was
early made passable for light carriages and carts, it was a formid-
able rival for long both to the main line of the Brenner, S. of
Brixen, and to the Pontebba Pass on the E. However, it was all
but exclusively a commercial pass, over which the spoils of the
East went from Venice to Central Germany, and never seems to
have possessed any great military or political importance. After
the Ampezzo valley fell into the hands of the Habsburgers in 1 5 1 7

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 193

the whole pass became more and more Tyrolese, as both slopes
were thenceforth held by that powerful dynasty. The Ampezzo
Pass has become of importance to pleasure travellers only within
the last thirty or forty years, the fine carriage road having been
constructed in 1 829-1 830.

Farther to the E. is the second pass which must be considered
under this head, the Plocken Pass, Kreuzberg, or Monte Croce
(4462 ft.), leading from Lienz on the upper Drave past Mauthen
and Tolmezzo to Udine (Friuli), and to be carefully distinguished
from another Monte Croce Pass (5374 ft.) a little to its W., and
leading from Innichen in the upper Drave valley to Cadore and
Belluno. The Plocken Pass is an odd little pass that never seems
to have met with due recognition. Possibly this was because the
traveller who had come over it from Udine to Mauthen in the
Gail valley (Carinthia) found himself obliged to cross yet another
ridge by the Gailberg Pass (3182 ft.) in order to gain the upper
Drave valley, and then yet a third ridge, the Toblach Pass
(3967 ft.) to Toblach, if he was bound for the Pusterthal and the
Brenner route. Another reason for the neglect of the Plocken
Pass was the fact that its neighbours, the Brenner, the Ampezzo,
and the Pontebba, were too strong for it. Yet our pass is
described in the Antonine Itinerary, while to this day on or
close to its summit there are still to be seen and deciphered no
fewer than three Roman inscriptions, dating from the second to
the fourth century of the Christian era. About 567 it was crossed
by the Gaulish poet, Venantius Fortunatus, who calls the second
passage (the Gailberg) from the Gail valley to that of the Drave
by the name of the ' Alpis Julia,' a denomination that for once
can be satisfactorily explained, as it is taken from the Italian
name (Val Zellia) of the Gail valley. The main pass is named
'mons Crucis' in documents of 1184, 1234, and 1296, which
show that it was used by traders who desired to avoid the tolls
levied on those crossing the Pontebba Pass. It played a small
part in various local wars in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seven-
teenth centuries, though it was honoured by the presence of
but a single Emperor, Rupert, in 1401. It never had much
commercial importance, save when the neighbouring passes
N

194 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

were closed for one reason or another, but such as it had was
ruined by the construction first of the carriage road (1836),
and next of the railway line (1873-9) over the Pontebba Pass.
Of course, in 1866, the S. slope of the pass passed with the rest
of Friuli from Austria to Italy.

The Plocken Pass, of which we have just sketched the history,
crosses the main ridge of the Carnic Alps, but as it is rather a
' feeder ' of the Brenner than an independent pass, we have con-
sidered it in connection with the Brenner. Some way farther to
the E. lie the two passes which properly lead over the same
main ridge (the watershed of the Alps and the most southerly
of the three ridges into which the Eastern Alps here split), from
the S. into Carinthia — ihePofttebba, Pontafel, or Saifnitz Pass
(2615 ft.), and (slightly to its E.) the Fredil Pass (3813 ft.). The
routes over the two passes unite on the N. slope at Tarvis, and
continue together to Villach in Carinthia. But on the S. side the
Pontebba Pass is reached from Udine, through territory entirely
Italian since FriuU was lost in 1866 to Austria, by way of the Fella
or Ferro valley, commonly called the Canale valley, whereas the
route on the S. slope of the Predil Pass lies wholly within Austrian
territory (the county of Gorz) up the Isonzo valley, in which there
is a village named Canale, a fact that often leads to a confusion
between the two passes. Again, the Pontebba Pass is just within
the Carnic Alps, while the Predil Pass is just within the JuHc
Alps, the former rejoicing in a splendidly picturesque railway (con-
structed between 1873 and 1879), the latter having a carriage road
only. These and various other factors (such as the greater height
of the Predil and its more exposed situation) have brought it
about that the Pontebba Pass has always been more important
historically than the Predil. Indeed the Predil comes into pro-
minence only between 1319, when the citizens of Cividale obtained
leave from the Bishop of Bamberg (who soon after the erection
of the see in 1007 had obtained from its founder, the Emperor
Henry 11., the entire Carinthian slope of our two passes) to build
a road (actually constructed 1326-7) over the 'new and unusual
route' of the Predil, and 1348, when a great landslip blocked for
some years access to both passes on the N. side. When the eifects

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 195

of this misfortune were remedied, came the long strife between the
Habsburgers (who had obtained Carinthia in 1335) and their
vassal, the Bishop of Bamberg, against the Patriarch of Aquileia,
who (till he lost his temporal power to Venice in 1418-1420) natu-
rally favoured the Predil rather than the Pontebba. But when the
county of Gorz came in 1500 to the Habsburgers, the fate of the
Predil was sealed. On the other hand, the Pontebba route is
described in the Antonine Itinerary (it is possibly even dimly
alluded to on the Peutinger Table), while a milestone found on
the summit, and inscriptions elsewhere on the route, show that
it was a frequented route in Roman days. Possibly crossed in
884 by Charles the Fat, it was later used by the few Emperors
who came into these regions — Henry iv. in 1077 and 1097,
Conrad iii. in 1149, Frederick 11. in 1236, and Charles iv. in
1354 (perhaps in 1368 also), as well as by a portion of Frederick
i.'s army in 1158, while in 1797 Napoleon himself went over
it on his bold campaign in Austria, for Massena had secured the
pass by force of arms.

The commercial importance of the Pontebba Pass was also
great from early times, for in 1184 and in 1234 the Patriarchs of
Aquileia made treaties with (respectively) Count Henry of Tyrol
and Count Meinhard of Tyrol and Gorz with regard to the tolls
levied on this route, while numerous other documents show what
a considerable amount tolls brought in. The various stations on
this road are also carefully enumerated in the itineraries of several
Patriarchs of Aquileia in the early thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. One particularly interesting point must be noted. The
Pontebba was the chief trade route from Venice towards the N.E.,
and no doubt it was the Venetian trade which mainly contributed
to the commercial importance of the pass. The inhabitants of
the smaller towns N, of Udine very naturally compared the deep-
cut trench of the Fella leading up to the pass with one of the canals
of Venice, and this name ' canale,' half understood by the German
traders, was turned by them into a proper name ' Canal,' and the
route described as 'via per Canales.' This name first occurs in
1 158 and 1234, but later is quite the usual one for the pass, which
was also described as ' per clusam,' i.e. through the chise or narrow

196 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

gorge, which gave its name of Chiusaforte to the village at the
S. entrance of the gorge of the Fella, where was the principal toll-
house on the S. side of the pass.

Coming now to the central of the three ranges which are
formed by the E. spurs of the Eastern Alps — the Tauern range
—we find that though several of the passes across it, now dis-
tinguished by special names as varieties of the Tauern passage
{e.g. Mallnitzer Tauern, Hohe Tauern, Velber Tauern), were
probably known in Roman times, yet only the two most easterly
passes, which are also far lower than the rest, have any real
general historical importance. Of these this pair, the Radstddter
Tauern (5702 ft., now traversed by a carriage road), forms part of
the main route from Klagenfurt to Salzburg, and is therefore
indicated on the Peutinger Table, while Roman milestones have
been found near it ; but it is impossible to say with certainty that
this way was ever taken by any of the Emperors. The Solkscharte
(5873 ft.), more to the E., is possibly indicated in the Antonine
Itinerary, but has always been overshadowed by the Radstadter
Tauern, and to this day is traversed by a mule path only.

In the most northerly of the three ridges which in the E.
portion of the Eastern Alps separate Italy from Austria, the Lueg
Pass (1700 ft.) is a huge, narrow gorge (carriage road through it)
which forms the natural continuation of the way over the Rad-
stadter Tauern to Salzburg, and is perhaps alluded to on the
Peutinger Table. Similarly, the Pyhrn Pass (3100 ft.) is the
natural continuation of the Solkscharte route to Linz : on its N.
slope stood formerly a Hospice, which was founded about 1190
by the Archbishop of Salzburg and the Bishop of Bamberg jointly,
and gave its name to the village of Spital — beneath the pass a
railway line was opened in 1906. But these two passes, like the
Fern Pass (4026 ft.) and the Scharnitz or See/eld Pass (3874 ft.)
— both leading from the Bavarian Highlands to the Inn valley,
a little above Innsbruck — are simply ways across (or through,
by the means of deep gorges) the most northerly low limestone
ridge of the Alps, which gives access to the real Alps, and
properly forms merely the foot-hills of the great range.

To complete our view of the Great Historical Passes of the
Alps we have now only to glance at the two routes which, like

THE GREAT HISTORICAL PASSES 197

that by Turbie along the shore of the Mediterranean in the
Western Alps, skirt rather than cross the most easterly spurs of
the Alps — the Birnbaumer Wald and the Semmering Pass, the
two routes being connected by the Loibl Pass (4495 ft.)> which
leads from Klagenfurt, situated on a small affluent of the Drave,
to Krainburg (E. of Laibach) on the Save.

The Bir7ibaunier Wald is not properly a pass, but simply a
route across the great wooded Carniolan limestone plateau, which
rises to a height of 2897 ft., and by which a traveller can go from
Laibach in Carniola past Wippach to Gorz on the Isonzo, N.W.
of Trieste and N.E. of Aquileia: there is now a railway from
Laibach past Ober Laibach (the Roman Nauportus) to Loitsch,
whence a carriage road is carried on to Gorz, where another
railway line is taken to Trieste. This route is described or
mentioned in the Antonine and Jerusalem Itineraries, while the
Peutinger Table names it the ' Alpis Julia,' and Strabo calls it
'mons Ocra.' Situated at the S.E. angle of the Alpine chain, it
offers a short and easy way into Italy, which was taken by several
of the Barbarian tribes which successively invaded that fair land,
e.g. the Quadi, the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, etc. The Birn-
baumer Wald is the true ' Alpis Julia,' a name which has been
also applied to the Mont Genevre (because of Julius Casar), to
the Julier Pass in the Upper Engadine, and to the Gailberg, N.
of the Plocken Pass. But it is perhaps going too far to claim (as
does a recent German writer on the Alpine region) that for the
Romans the Mont Genevre and the Birnbaumer Wald were by
far the two most important Alpine passes from a political point of
view, since both opened up to them a great field for colonisation
and for conquest, though there is undoubtedly a considerable
element of truth in the statement.

Last of all on our hst is the Semmering Pass (3215 ft.), which
forms the direct route from Vienna to Graz, the capital of
Styria (and on by Marburg and Laibach to Trieste), and, in
a way, balances the Birnbaumer Wald, for it is at the N.E.
angle of the Alps as the latter is at their S.E. angle. A remark-
able railway (superseding the carriage road, ended in 1728) was
constructed over the Semmering between 1S48 and 1854, the
first line over the Alps, which are pierced by a tunnel 282 ft.

198 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

below the actual summit of the pass. Some 600 ft. below the
pass, on the S.W. or Styrian slope, at the hamlet now called
Spital, Ottakar v., Marquess of Styria, founded, about 11 60, a
Hospice which rendered great services till 1331. No doubt
this easy and not very elevated route must have been known in
earlier days, for the valleys, first of the Mur, then of the Miirz,
lead up to it from Styria, and make it the natural road from that
province to Austria. For that very reason, probably, it is not so
often mentioned in historical documents as we might expect. But
it seems possible that in 1097 the Emperor Henry iv. crossed the
Semmering on his return by the Pontebba Pass to Germany,
and pretty certain that in 1368 Charles iv. took this route on his
way from Vienna to Italy also by the Pontebba Pass.

The above sketch of the fates of the Great Historical Passes
of the Alps shows that the celebrated passes of antiquity and
of the Middle Ages are by no means always those which are
most frequented at the present day. In the Western Alps the
Mont Genevre gave way in the early Middle Ages to the
Mont Cenis, which in turn has been entirely superseded by
the railway called after it, though built a good bit to its W.
The Great St. Bernard, however, has never lost its supremacy,
despite the fact that it has only just obtained a carriage road
over it, while the mediaeval Simplon will gain fresh vigour (having
previously put the Antrona Pass out of the field) by reason of the
new railway recently pierced beneath it. In the Central Alps
the rise of the St. Gotthard, though it began late, has been
steady and uninterrupted, and that pass has now quite extin-
guished those in Roetia (the Lukmanier, the Septimer, the
Umbrail, etc.), which had a great reputation in their day. In
the Eastern Alps the Brenner occupies, in this respect, a position
similar to that of the Great St. Bernard, its natural advantages
being even greater. But most of its 'feeders' have now but
slight local importance, while the railways over the Semmering
and the Pontebba serve only the outskirts of the Alps, and so
do not rival or compete with the Brenner.

CHAPTER IX

THE EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS UP TO THE

END OF 1865

A MOUNTAIN Peak is made by Nature, but a mountain
Pass has been created by Man. In other words,
Peaks are natural phenomena, while passes are not ' Passes '
till crossed by man, however clearly the depressions may
have been indicated by Nature. Now men do not ascend high
peaks without some special inducement, though they do cross
glacier passes of the easier kind for purely practical reasons ;
and this chapter is concerned only with high peaks and glacier
passes. But the history of the exploration of the lofty peaks
in the Alps is far easier to write than that of the glacier passes
in the main chain. Yet there can be no doubt that Passes
were traversed before Peaks were cHmbed. While natives went
over passes for practical reasons, it happened but rarely be-
fore the appearance of travellers that they tried to ascend the
peaks of their valley. Hence, while in order of time we must
commence any history of the exploration of the High Alps
with some notice of the glacier passes therein, it is far harder
to get information as to these than as to peaks. The mention
of a glacier pass on a map, or the indication thereon of a track
across over it, implies that some one has really gone over it.
On the other hand, the naming of a peak in a narrative or on
a map does not in any way signify that it had then been
climbed, for names were attributed to peaks when looked at
from below, though passes were not named till actually traversed,
and even then not at once, for the early writers simply say that

199

200 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

'the mountains can be overcome between such and such places,'
but do not, till quite a late date, give to the passage any
special name.

Now it is estimated that before 1600, about twenty glacier
passes were known in the Alps, that about twenty more were
added to this list before 1 700, and about twenty-five more before
1800 — in all say sixty-five, and this number reckons as glacier
passes such cols as the Monte Moro, the Muretto, and the Gries
Pass. We must patiently gather together scattered allusions to
passes, for the maps, even up to 1800, name but a small number
of the glacier passes that had certainly been crossed before that
date — for example, Weiss' Atlas of Switzerland ( 1 786-1802) names
but four in the whole of Switzerland, while Peter Anich's Atlas of
the Tyrol (1774) indicates eight within the limits of that pro-
vince only, and not in the Eastern Alps as a whole. Yet in
the French and Italian Alps a considerable number of real
glacier passes are expressly mentioned before 1800. Thus in
1673, i" ^ document enumerating the limits of the commune
(the most extensive in France next after that of Aries) of
St. Christophe, in the Dauphine Alps, no fewer than five
glacier passes are named: Beaurain's map (1741) of the diocese
of Grenoble marks four of these, and adds three new ones, while
Bourcet's map (1749-54) gives five glacier passes, one of which
is first indicated on Paulmy's map of 1752. Yet even to this
day the glacier passes of this region are but little frequented by
travellers, and none are known to have actually been crossed
by any traveller before 1834. Hence it is a mere accident
which has preserved to us so many details as to the passes of
a remote district, an accident which shows that in other regions
many glacier passes may well have been known to the natives,
though not mentioned in any documents as yet unearthed.
Thus in 1206 the Bishop of Aosta (who was also lord of Cogne)
granted to certain men of Cogne some pastures on the further
side of the Col de Teleccio, which hence must have been crossed
before these pastures could be utilised. About 1250 the Count
of Biandrate, holding the valleys on either side of the Monte
Moro Pass, arranged that his serfs at Macugnaga should (as

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 201

they actually did) colonise the valley of Saas, but the pass
itself is not alluded to. Again, in 1252, the Col de Fenetre
de Bagnes (leading from Aosta to the Val de Bagnes) must
have been in use, for in that year Amadeus iv., Count of Savoy,
granted to the lord of Quart in the Aosta valley the pastures
in the upper portion of the Val de Bagnes. Once more, the
Futschdl Pass (from the Lower Engadine to the Paznaun valley
— both regions then Tyrolese, as the latter is to this day) was
certainly known in 1383, for in that year Galtiir, in the Paznaun
valley, was permitted, owing to the difficulty of communication
in winter, to have a priest for itself, to serve the church built
in 1359, although hitherto it had been included in the parish of
Ardez, in the Lower Engadine. On the other hand, some glacier
passes are very clearly indicated by a name of some sort, even at
a very early date. Thus in 1352 and 1380 we hear of the 'cross
on the snowy mountains' between the Lotschen and Gastern
valleys ; while the pass (now best known as the Lotschen Pass)
is called ' Gandegg ' in 1366, as in 1384 and in 1419, when battles
took place there between the Vallaisans and the Bernese.

The fact that for centuries Savoy and Piedmont were under
the same rule is probably the reason why, in the last sixty years
of the seventeenth century, no fewer than six glacier passes
are mentioned, on maps or in documents, over the great chain
that forms the watershed between the Mont Cenis and the
Little St. Bernard. Five of these passes are, indeed, included
in a very remarkable report (first published in full by the
present writer in 1904 in his work Josias Siniler et les Origifies
de FAlpinisme jusquen 1600, pp. 269*-32 7*) as to the valley
of Aosta. It was drawn up by one P. A. Arnod, a ducal official,
for the use of his master, the Duke of Savoy, with special
reference to the necessity of erecting fortifications to prevent
the exiled Waldensians from quitting Switzerland in order to
regain their native valleys, near Pinerolo. In this report, dated
1 69 1-4, no fewer than seventeen glacier passes are mentioned,
or described, around this single valley of Aosta. Two of these
deserve special notice. One is the Col du Geant, leading from
Courmayeur to Chamonix. This pass is indicated, under the

202 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

name of 'Col Major,' on several maps, from 1648 onwards, and
so was really known at that time. Hence, in 1689, Arnod
himself tried to ' reopen ' this legendary pass. He took three
bold hunters with him, providing the party with crampons for
the feet, and iron hooks for their hands, as well as axes, but
finally had to give up the descent towards Chamonix, owing to
the huge crevasses, probably after having reached what are now
known as 'the seracs du Geant.' If we bear in mind that we
do not hear of any authentic passage of this col till 1786, when
an Englishman, named Hill, achieved the feat, we shall better
realise the exceeding boldness of Arnod's attempt.

Another pass which he describes in considerable detail

(without, however, distinctly stating that he had himself crossed

it) is the Sf. Th'eodule. He speaks of an ancient and roughly

hewn statue (wooden) of St. Theodule, which the Vallaisans had

long before set up just on their side of the pass, and — most

curiously — attributes to the pass the name of ' Monservin,' an

appellation which it bears to this day, and which it gave to

the great peak of the Matterhorn (called thus in the Aosta

valley) that towers over it. The St. Theodule is, in truth

(together with the Hochjoch, in the Oetzthal division of the

Tyrolese Alps, though this pass is first distinctly mentioned in

1 601), the typical glacier pass of the Alps. Putting aside some

possible earlier allusions, we find that it is mentioned by the

four great Swiss topographers of the sixteenth century, Aegidius

Tschudi (1538 and 1572), Johannes Stumpf (1548), Sebastian

Miinster (1550), and Josias Simler (1574); the last named

translating the name 'the Glacier' given by the other writers

(who also call it ' Mons Sylvius ') by ' Rosa,' an adaptation of a

word ('roesa') in the Aostan patois, signifying 'a glacier,' and

now confined to the loftiest point of that great Sea of Ice,

namely Monte Rosa itself. Yet, though this real glacier pass

was so well known at so early a date, we know for certain of

two parties only which had crossed it before H. B. de Saussure

revealed it to the world in 1789 and in 1792. About 1528

Tschudi himself went over it, as did, at some date between

1758 and 1767, and possibly on two occasions, one or both the

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 203

Thomases, of Bex, who collected plants for the celebrated
botanist, Albert von Haller.

These details as to certain glacier passes will suffice to show
that in all probability it would be easy to increase our knowledge
of the subject by further researches and lucky discoveries, and
that a far greater number of these passes (of course of no great
difficulty, according to modern standards) were really known
to the natives than is commonly believed.

Let us now turn our attention from glacier passes to high
peaks. Here, too, we find several mentioned by name at a
very early date, though, as pointed out above, a mention in
the case of a peak in no way implies that it was climbed at or
before that date. Monte Viso is the first mountain that attracted
the attention of dwellers below, for it is very conspicuous from
the plain of Piedmont. It is alluded to, under the name of
'Vesulus,' by Virgil, Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, and
Solinus, among the writers of classical antiquity, as well as by
Martianus Capella in the fifth century, and by Chaucer in the
fourteenth century. The present writer is of opinion that the
' white rock ' (rupes alba) spoken of in the charter of foundation,
about 1 09 1, of the Benedictine priory at Chamonix refers to
Mont Blanc, though some think that it indicates a ' Roche
Blanche,' near Servoz. But Mont Blanc is certainly meant
on maps and in narratives of the seventeenth century from 1606
onwards by the names of ' Montagne Maudite ' (a term sometimes
apparently applied to the Buet, but probably intended to refer to
Mont Blanc), and in 1581 as from 1648 onwards by that of ' Les
Glacieres.' As yet, the now so familiar name of ' Mont Blanc '
(probably the local term) has not been found earlier than 1742
(text of Pierre Martel's Letter) and 1744 (map annexed to the
English translation of that Letter). The name * Mont Malay '
(another form of ' Montagne Maudite ') occurs first on Du Val's
map of 1644, this appellation giving way, from 1773-6 onwards,
to that by which the remarkable needle is now known of
'Aiguille du Geant.' In the Bernese Oberland the Eiger is
first mentioned in a document of 1252 ; the Balmhorn in another,

204 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

dated 1366"; and the Bietschhorn, in 1548, by Stumpf. In 1577-8
Thomas Schopf in his text and on his map adds many more
peaks to the Hst, among which are the Finsteraarhorn (named
' Schreckshorn '), the Schreckhorn (dubbed ' Mettelberg'), the
Jungfrau, the Wetterhorn, the Wildstrubel (termed ' Ratlisberg '),
the Wildhorn (' auf der Gelten mons '), the Oldenhorn, the Gross
Lohner, the Dent de Jaman, etc., all these now making their
first appearance (so far as is known) in a written document
or on a map. More to the east the Piz Linard^, in the Lower
Engadine, is mentioned about 1573 by the local historian Ulrich
Campell under the name of ' Pitz Chiinard,' from a legend that
a certain hunter, named Conrad, had climbed it and planted a
golden cross on the summit. In the Eastern Alps, the Gross
Glockner appears in 1562, in 1583, and in 1611, under dialectal
forms, but the Ortler not, apparently, till Anich's Atlas Tyrolensis
of 1774, which names also the Presanella (' Presserela Mons '), as
well as most of the great Dolomite peaks, such as the Marmolata,
the Cimone della Pala, the Cima di Vezzana, the Sass Maor,
the Pelmo, the Monte Cristallo, the Tofana, the Sorapiss, the
Piz Popena, and the Drei Zinnen, the actual names being given
with, in a few cases, only slight orthographical variations. But
Anich, though mentioning the Wildspitze in the Oetzthal group
and the Dreiherrenspitze in that of the Gross Venediger district,
never speaks of the latter summit, of which, like the Adamello,
we hear for the first time in 1797. If we turn to the opposite
extremity of the Alps we find that the term ' Mont Produissant '
(there are several spellings) was applied on many seventeenth
and eighteenth century maps to the great mountain mass,
which includes the Ecrins, the Ailefroide, and the Pelvoux,
though it was sometimes Umited to the Ecrins alone. Bourcet's
map (1749-1754) calls the Ecrins the ' Montagne d'Oursine,'
and gives the name of ' Grand Pelvoux ' to the Ailefroide,
leaving the real Pelvoux without any name at all. On the
other hand, he first mentions the Meije, but under the name
of the ' Aiguille du Midi,' for the term Meije is not found till
1834, and then as a nickname. It is a curious fact that the
Ecrins was not clearly distinguished from the Pelvoux till 1834,

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 205

nor the latter from the Ailefroide till 1858. Yet it is in
this district where three of the four highest peaks are so
confounded with each other, that we find (as noted above)
express mention of no fewer than five glacier passes as early
as 1673. These singular variations show how much hangs on
accident, for the natives would naturally distinguish the three
peaks (if they paid any attention to them), though outsiders
visiting or mapping the district might confound them, and it is
from the evidence supplied by outsiders that much of our
knowledge as to the early names given attributed to peaks and
passes is ultimately derived.

The somewhat lengthy list of peaks that we have just
given may suffice to show that from the sixteenth century on-
wards a certain number of lofty summits were becoming
individualised, and picked out, by means of special names,
from their neighbours, though after a somewhat erratic and
inconsequent fashion. But none of them, save the Piz
Linard in the case of the legendary Conrad, had as yet found
their conqueror.

L — Ascents made before 1760

We must now go on to enumerate a few high peaks, or
snowy peaks (this excludes the Mont Ventoux, the Niesen,
the Stockhorn, and the like), which were scaled in early days,
though our list up to 1760 contains only about half-a-dozen
entries, as will be seen on consulting the Chronological List
printed below as Appendix 11.

In the cathedral church of Susa there is still preserved a
remarkable bronze triptych, which depicts the Madonna and
Child, between St. George, mounted, and St. James, who is
presenting a kneeling warrior. This knight is supposed to
be one Bonifacio Rotario (of Asti), as to whom all we know
certainly is comprised in the inscription engraved at the foot
of the triptych, to the effect that a man of that name ' brought
me hither in honour of our Blessed Lord and our Lady on
September i, 1358.' The word 'hither' refers to the peak

206 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

of the Rochemelon (11,605 ft.), that rises in the Graian Alps
on the east of the Mont Cenis Pass. It is still crowned by
a chapel, where mass is said annually on August 5 (the festival
of Notre Dame des Neiges), on which occasion the triptych is
solemnly carried up in procession. A number of more or less
fantastic legends are told as to the reasons which induced
Rotario to perform this strange act. But we read that in the
eleventh century already the monks of the great Benedictine
monastery of Novalesa, at the S.W. foot of the peak, had been
beaten back on an attempt to scale it in order to secure the
treasures left there by one King Romulus, we may safely con-
clude that Rotario's act was due to a vow of some kind that
he had made. In the eleventh century the peak is called
'mons Romuleus,' but the present name first occurs in 1494.
As the mountain is snowless on the Susa side it is remarkably
accessible for its height, though on the Savoyard slope its flank
is covered by a glacier of some extent, which, however, does not
deter pilgrims from annually mounting to the chapel from that
side also. Some way to the west of the Rochemelon, and on
the other side of the so-called Mont Cenis Railway Tunnel,
rises another peak, the Mont Thabor (10,440 ft.), crowned by a
chapel in which mass is said annually towards the end of August.
We know that this chapel was rebuilt in 1694, but it is not known
at what date this pilgrimage, a rival to that to the Rochemelon,
took its origin. The access to this peak is even easier than that
to the Rochemelon.

If the Rochemelon was the first high peak in the Alps to be
conquered, its Alpine history is scarcely as interesting as that
of a much lower summit, the Mont Aiguille (6880 ft.) that
rises precipitously some thirty-six miles to the S. of Grenoble.
It resembles Roraima, in British Guiana, in that it consists of
a nearly level grassy plain, supported on very steep rock
bastions, that even now can only be scaled (without ropes)
by a good cragsman. It was locally known as one of the
' Seven Miracles of the Dauphiny,' and is first mentioned in
121 1 by the English chronicler, Gervase of Tilbury. It was
supposed to be quite impregnable, and indeed bore the name

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 207

of the * Mons Inascensibilis.' Luckily time has preserved to
us the extraordinary letter, written on June 28, 1492, on the
summit, by the first conqueror of this wonderful freak of
nature, Antoine de Ville, lord of DomjuUen and of Beaupre
(both places are in Lorraine), as well as other contemporary
accounts of this marvellous feat of climbing. He tells us that
his master, Charles viii., king of France, then on his way to
Italy, charged him to make an attempt to scale this peak.
This attempt succeeded, though the party (which numbered
eight or ten men, besides the writer) had to use ladders and
other ' sobtilz engins ' — it would be interesting to know what
these were. He spent three days on the summit, which he
caused to be baptized in the Threefold Name, and had mass
said in the hut that he built on the top. The summit consists
of a fine grassy meadow, whereon were many chamois, old and
young, another account adding that a number of birds, such as
crows and sparrows, were also discovered there. Three great
crosses were set up on the edge of the meadow, to prove to the
spectators below that the summit had really been attained. This
expedition, considering its date (a little before Columbus dis-
covered America — or, strictly speaking, the Bahama Islands — on
October 12, 1492), is one of the most extraordinary incidents
in the annals of mountaineering. This singularity induced the
present writer to have all the five original documents photo-
graphed for reproduction (four are given only with the editiori
de luxe) of his work Josias Simler (Grenoble, 1904), the text
being also transcribed for the benefit of the many who cannot
easily decipher fifteenth-century writing.

After this amazing expedition of 1492, which has a distinct
flavour of the Middle Ages, we must wait long till we come to
any authentic account of the conquest of another peak, and
even then we cannot expect to meet with similar sensations and
thrills. The Swiss traveller, J. J. Scheuchzer (of whom more
anon), tells us that in 1707 his friend, Rudolf von Rosenroll (a
member of an ancient Thusis family), made the ascent of the Piz
Beverin (9843 ft.), a prominent summit in the range W. of Thusis
and the Via Mala. The last hour of the ascent alone offered

2o8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

any serious difficulties, owing to the strong wind that blew, the
absence of bushes wherewith to pull oneself up, as well as the
soft and yielding nature of the soil of which the mountain is
composed. The climber, who appears to have been alone,
carried to the top a barometer, with which he made observa-
tions, and had the good fortune to enjoy an unclouded and
very extensive view. There is nothing to show that it was
a ' first ascent,' but it is certainly a ' first recorded ascent.' On
the other hand, the ascent at some uncertain date between 17 16
and 1742 of the Scesaplana (9741 ft.), at the extreme western
extremity of the Rhatikon chain, and N.E. of Ragatz, does not
pretend to any originality. But the narrative is the earliest
that has been preserved to us of a visit to this glorious view-
point, which rejoices in a real, though harmless, glacier. The
excursionist was Nicholas Sererhard (1689-1756), who in 1742
wrote his ' Description of the Grisons.' He was a native
of Kiiblis, and from 1716 to 1756 pastor of Seewis, two
villages in the Prattigau or Landquart valley, that extends just
to the south of the peak, and was accompanied by two other
men. He speaks with respect of the ' horrible great glacier '
that the party had to traverse, and marvelled much at the
nut-shells, hairs of men and horses, and shavings that lay
scattered over its surface, having been blown up by the
wind. He gives a very detailed description of the panorama
which lay unrolled before his eyes, the Todi attracting his
attention particularly. The descent was affected by way of
the Liinersee.

Last on our list before 1760 comes the Titlis (10,627 ft.),
the well-known mountain that overhangs the Engelherg valley.
The first ascent was effected in July, 1 744, by four peasants of
Engelberg. Two of these were still alive in 1767, when the
Subprior obtained from them exact information as to their
climb twenty-three years before. They seem to have taken
the now usual route by way of the Triibsee and the glacier
above it. They employed crampons on their feet, had sticks
wherewith to sound for concealed crevasses, and were all four
bound together by a rope. They planted a great pole in a

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 209

hole they dug out of the ice on the summit, and tied to it
two large bits of black cloth, which were well seen from the
village and monastery for a long time, and served as proofs
of the success of their adventurous undertaking.

It does not enter into the scope of this chapter to trace out
the gradual growth of the love of mountain beauty. We limit
ourselves here to narrating how, for whatever reasons, the
high peaks and glacier passes of the Alps were gradually
overcome in the course of long years. But in any sketch
of this subject it would not be right to omit the name of J. J.
Scheuchzer (1672-1733), of Ziirich, a learned man of science,
and a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was the official town
physician at Ziirich, and also professor at the Caroline School
in that town. Between 1702 and 17 10 (except in the year
1708) he made a series of journeys among the mountains of
his native land. The first three years of these were described
in a volume published in London in 1708 with the 'imprimatur'
of Sir Isaac Newton, then President of the Royal Society. This
narrative, added to other descriptions of his later journeys, was
issued in 4 vols, at Leyden in 1723. In 17 16 Scheuchzer had
published his Helvetiae Stoicheiographia, Orographia, et Oreo-
graphia, in which he sums up all that was then known as to
the peaks and passes of Switzerland, thus bringing up to date
Josias Simler's De Alpibus Commeniarius (1574). Now
Scheuchzer has no claim to be a mountain climber. His
one glacier pass is the Segnes (a very mild pass of that kind),
while he crossed the Gemmi twice, before the path was improved
in 1 740-1, and also the Joch Pass. His one peak was an out-
lier of the Pilatus range. But his narratives greatly stimulated
the rising taste for travelling among the mountains, and in this
way Scheuchzer must be regarded as one of the earliest pioneers
of mountain climbing. He noted all mountain phenomena that
he remarked during his travels, giving a summary of what then
was known about glaciers (which he terms ' montes glaciales ')
when describing the Rhone glacier. He wrote in Latin, in
order (like Simler) to make known his native land to the outer
world, especially to foreign scientific men, for even at that date
o

2IO THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Latin was still the language of learned men. We should not
forget, too, his map of Switzerland (four sheets, 17 12), which
remained the best till the publication of Weiss's Atlas (1786-
1802).

II. — Ascents made between 1760 and c. 1800

The true date of the origin of serious mountain climbing is
1760, just about one hundred years before the foundation
(winter of 1857-8) of the English Alpine Club, the first institu-
tion of its kind. In that year G. S. Gruner published his
Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes (3 vols.) (a detailed descrip-
tion of Swiss and other glaciers as far as they were then known,
and so a completion of Scheuchzer's 17 16 book, as regards this
particular point) ; and H. B. de Saussure (1740-1799) — a wealthy
scientific man of Geneva — on occasion of his first visit to
Chamonix, offered a prize to the man who should first succeed
in discovering a practicable route up Mont Blanc : the highest
summit of the Alps was at once selected as the object of
attacks by the infant school of mountaineers. This offer did
not meet with an enthusiastic reception, for the first serious
effort to scale Mont Blanc dates only from 1775, and the next
from 1783. But before that time the mere idea of climbing
mountains had stirred up several men to try other peaks. In
the Eastern Alps the Ankogel (10,673 '^'^•)^ one of the most
easterly of snowy Alpine peaks, was reached about 1762, and
the Terglou (9400 ft.), the culminating point of the South-
Eastern Alps, in 1778. As early as 1770 the brothers Deluc,
also scientific men of Geneva, had gained the summit of the
Buet (10,201 ft.), in order to make scientific observations. In
1775 Marc Theodore Bourrit (1739-1819), another Genevese,
discovered a ' new route ' (the first on record) up that peak,
which Saussure visited in 1776, while in 1800 it was the scene
of the first known accident to a traveller on a glacier, a young
Dane, F. A. Eschen, having then perished in a crevasse. In 1779
L. J. Murith (1742-1816), one of the canons of the Great St.
Bernard, succeeded in scaling the Mont Vdlan (12,353 ft.), that

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 211

rises to the N.E. of the convent. In 1767 and 1778 he guided
his friend, Saussure, to the Valsorey glacier, and Bourrit in 1778
to the Otemma glacier, besides exploring in 1785 (apparently not
for the first time) the granite range on the left bank of the Orny
glacier in the interests of Saussure. In 1784 the cure of Val d'
Illiez, M. J. M. Clement, vanquished the highest point of the great
local peak, the Dent du Midi (10,696 ft.).

Matters were now ready for the final assault on Mont Blanc
(15,782 ft.). In 1784 two of Bourrit's guides, Francois Cuidet
and J. M. Couttet, starting from St. Gervais, succeeded in attain-
ing the Aiguille (12,609 ft.) and the Dome du Gouter (14,118 ft.),
and even a point near the first of the Bosses du Dromadaire.
On July I, 1786, several guides reached a spot just below the
first Bosse, mounting from Chamonix. Finally, on August 8,
1786, the coveted goal was attained at 6.30 p.m. by a bold young
Chamonix guide, Jacques Balmat (i 762-1834), accompanied by
Michel Paccard, the village doctor. Since the conquest of the
Mont Aiguille, nearly three hundred years previously, no more
plucky feat of climbing had been performed, for in 1786 the
glaciers were still regarded with awe, and it required enormous
courage to venture one's life in these trackless deserts of ice,
seamed everywhere with yawning chasms, ready to engulf the
unwary visitor. In 1787 Saussure in his turn attained the
summit, his being the third ascent, while six days later Colonel
Beaufoy, an Englishman, repeated the feat. On the other
hand, Bourrit was never able to make this ascent, but in 1787
he followed the steps of Mr. Hill (1786) over the Col du Geant,
Saussure crossing this pass in 1788 only, but then remaining
on its crest for seventeen days, employed in making scientific
observations. In 1822 it was traversed by Mrs. and Miss
Campbell, the first women to attain these snowy heights,
though they did not carry out their intention of ascending
Mont Blanc : that summit had been gained in 1808 by a
Chamonix woman, Marie Paradis, while in 1838 Mile. Henriette
d'Angeville repeated the exploit.

Saussure's activity was not confined to the Mont Blanc
region. In 1789 he ascended the Pizzo Bianco, near Mac-

212 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

ugnaga, and the Rothhorn, near Gressoney, and crossed the
St. Theodule to Zermatt, which he was the first genuine
traveller to visit. In 1792 he mounted from the Italian side
to the St. Theodule, where he remained for several days,
making observations, climbing in the intervals the Little
Matterhorn and the Theodulhorn : the loftier Breithorn was
not ascended till Monsieur H. Maynard, in 1813, reached its
summit, under the impression that he had conquered Monte
Rosa. Saussure's climbing performances thus range over a very
few years (17 76-1 792), but they caused a great sensation, for he
enjoyed wide scientific fame, and as far back as 17 68 had been
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Between 1779 and 1796
he published his great work, the Voyages dans les Alpes, in
four quarto volumes, illustrated by many maps (those of the
Mont Blanc group given in vols. i. and ii., 1779 and 1786, are
the first detailed map of a snowy group). This work may still
be turned over with profit and interest, though, of course,
its natural science is now of purely historical importance.
Bourrit's numerous books, on the other hand, though filled
.with an almost boyish and infectious enthusiasm, are less
important for the history of climbing, though still worth
consulting by any one desirous of studying the early visits
of travellers to various Alpine haunts.

The scene next shifts far away towards the east to the upper
valleys of the Rhine in the Grisons. We have now to
study the doings of a simple Benedictine monk. Father
Placidiis a Spescha (1752-1833), who in his humble way tried
to follow in the steps of his master, Saussure, though without
either his master's scientific knowledge or his material resources.
Born at Truns, between Ilanz and Disentis, in the valley of
the Vorder Rhine, he became in 1774 a monk at Disentis,
an ancient house (said to have been founded in 614 by a
disciple of St. Columban). After completing his education at
Einsiedeln, he returned in 1782 to Disentis. The rest of his
life was spent in serving various cures in his native valleys,
though he suffered much at the hands of his brother monks,
who could not understand his scientific tastes. In 1799 he

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 213

was accused of being a spy (his climbs and maps were held
suspicious) in favour of the French, and, when the French
did come, he had to give up to them all his scientific collections.
In addition he had the dreadful experience of learning, soon
after his departure, that his monastery, with all its most precious
archives, including his own original MSS., had been burnt by
order of the French general so as to punish the peasants who
dared to resist his advance. Despite all these disadvantages,
Spescha achieved an extraordinary amount of success in his
mountain explorations around his native valley : a fact the pre-
sent writer, who has written special Climbers' Guides to the
region, realises most keenly. It is true that Spescha failed to
attain the very highest summit, the Todi, although in 1788 he
ascended the Stockgron (11,214 ft-)) close to it, and only 673 ft.
lower, while in 1824, sitting on the depression (close to the
Stockgron and 863 ft. lower than the Todi), now called the Porta
da Spescha, he had the melancholy satisfaction of seeing the
two local chamois hunters that he had sent forward actually
attain the loftiest point. Perhaps he comforted himself with
the old law maxim, qui facit per alium facit per se, for the
hunters, left to themselves, would scarcely have dreamt of
facing the terrible glaciers, that most probably had also deterred
Spescha from pushing on towards the goal. Here are the
names of some of his principal climbs — in 17 89, the Rheinwald-
horn (11,149 ft.), the highest summit around the sources of
the Hinter Rhine, and, in 1806, the Giiferhorn (11,132 ft.), the
second summit of that region; in 1792, the Oberalpstock
(10,926 ft.), the highest point anywhere near Disentis ; in 1793,
the Piz Urlaun (11,060 ft.), near the Todi; in 1801, Piz Aul
(10,250 ft.) and PizScharboden (10,250ft.); and in 1802, PizTerri
(10,338 ft.), these three mountains being the culminating
points in the ranges that rise to the north of the Rheinwaldhorn
group. Oddly enough, he does not seem to have visited any
of the higher peaks of the Medel group, but only its outliers,
here again the dread of glaciers probably holding him back.
It is noteworthy that in the course of all his climbs he rarely
set foot on a glacier, though in 181 2, on occasion of his

214 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

second ascent of the Oberalpstock, he did cross the easy
glacier Brunni Pass (8977 ft.). In early Alpine history the
name of Spescha must always be bracketed with that of
Saussure.

The scene now shifts once more towards the east to the
borders of the Tyrol and Carinthia, to the bell-like peak of
the Gross Glockner (12,461 ft.). This summit rises at the
head of the Moll valley (Carinthia), wherein stand Dollach, and,
higher up, the Alpine village of Heiligenblut. Its height as
compared with those of the Ortler (really 12,802 ft.) and
Gross Wiesbachhorn (really 11,713 ft.) was a subject of
frequent discussion, as also its exact topographical position.
In 1779 already the question of the possibility of reaching
the top was mooted seriously. But it was not till later that
the news of Saussure's success on Mont Blanc brought about
the first attempt to vanquish a lofty snowy Austrian peak.
The deciding stimulus came from Count Franz von Salm (1749-
1822), who in 1783 became Prince-bishop of Gurk (he was
created a cardinal in 181 7), in which diocese the peak rises,
so that he had often seen it in the course of his pastoral
visitations. A first attempt in June, 1799, by two peasants of
Heiligenblut (the brothers Klotz), showed that the climb was
not impossible, as they reached a very considerable height,
indeed nearly gaining the summit of the Klein Glockner. The
bishop therefore ordered the construction of a wooden shelter-
hut in the Leiter glen, on the S.E. side of the mountain, and
on August 19, 1799, a number of peasants (it does not seem
that the bishop himself was of the party) established themselves
in it. But bad weather drove the party back to Heiligenblut.
It cleared on the 24th, so that a small party started for the
hut, and next day, in the finest weather, but after struggling
with much fresh snow, reached the summit of the Klein
Glockner, where they planted a cross. Besides the brothers
Klotz, there were two other carpenters, the bishop's Vicar-
general von Hohenwarth, and a sixth man, whose anonymous
diary has preserved to us these details. This success excited
immense rejoicing, and the bishop caused a medal to be struck

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 215

to commemorate the great event. Yet he does not seem to
have been completely satisfied, for in 1800 he organised
another expedition, in which he himself took part. But he
did not get very high up, while of his party of sixty-two persons
eight attained the Klein Glockner, five of these only (the
brothers Klotz, two other carpenters and Herr Horasch, the
cure of Dollach) venturing to cross over to the Gross Glockner.
some 112 ft. higher. Thus the loftiest point was won on
July 28, 1800, a memorable date in the Alpine history of the
Eastern Alps. The next day the ascent was repeated by the
four peasants, in order to plant a huge iron cross on the
culminating point, the party being reinforced by Valentin
Stanig (1774-1847), who had been delayed at Heiligenblut the
day before through making scientific observations. In his
youthful impetuosity Stanig clambered up the tall tree which
the peasants had planted next to the cross, in order, as he
himself says, to ' be higher than the Glockner or any one else
who has cUmbed it.' Stanig became later an ecclesiastic, and
made a number of climbs, in the interests of botany, such as
the first ascent of the Watzmann (in 1799 or 1801) and the
ascent of the Terglou (1808). His notes of his climbs display
the greatest enthusiasm, and Stanig is deservedly reckoned as
the earliest amateur mountaineer in the Eastern Alps.

At the end of this sketch of the Alpine history of the period
extending from 1760 to c. 1800 let us recall the publication
of several maps which were more or less based on personal
observations among the mountains, and aided the succeeding
generations very much. For the Dauphine Alps we have that of
Bourcet (1749- 17 54) ; for Savoy and Piedmont, that of Borgonio-
Stagnoni (a revision, made in 1772, of a map dating from 1680);
for the Tyrol, Peter Anich's Atlas Tyroloisis (1774) ; and for the
Swiss Alps, Weiss's Atlas (i 786-1802) — the dates given referring
in each case to the pubUcation of the map in question.

2i6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

III. — Ascents made between c. 1800 and c 1840

As in the period we have just studied so in this we have to
deal with three sets of explorations in three distinct Alpine
regions, but, while the Eastern Alps is included in both, the
Mont Blanc chain is now replaced by that of Monte Rosa, and
the Biindner Oberland (the home of Spescha) by the Bernese
Oberland.

Among the snows of the Bernese Oberland not much had
been done before the early years of the nineteenth century.
About 1780 the Gamchiliicke, in 1783 the Petersgrat (possibly
crossed in 1712 already), and in 1790 the Tschingel Pass — all
close to each other — had been crossed, while in 1795 the
Gauli Pass and in 1797 the Oberaarjoch were traversed. But
the only peaks ascended for certain were two summits that rise
above the Gauli glacier — in 1788 the Hangendgletscherhorn
(10,808 ft.) by J. E. Miiller (who between 1792 and 1797 also
visited the Uri Rothstock, 9620 ft.), one of Weiss's surveyors,
and a peak more to the east, but not now to be identified with
certainty, the ' Blaues Gletscherhorn,' which about 1792 was
visited by Weiss when making his survey. Now the expenses
of this survey, and of the publication of his Atlas, a marvel for
its date, so far as regards the High Alps, had been defrayed by
the head (J. R., 1 739-181 3) of the rich merchant family of
Meyer, of Aarau, who himself had, in 1787, climbed the Titlis,
while his son it was who had crossed the Tschingel in 1790. It
was therefore most fitting that various members of this family
should be the first to ascend some of the higher peaks of the
group. We know nothing of the previous practical knowledge
possessed by any of the Meyers as to the region they visited,
but the results attained are simply marvellous. In 181 1 the
two sons of the head of the family, named J. R. (1768-1825)
and Hieronymus, with several servants from Aarau and a
porter picked up at Guttannen, having reached the Vallais by
way of the Grimsel, crossed the Beich Pass, a glacier pass, to
the head of the Lotschen valley. Here they added two local

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 217

chamois hunters to their party and traversed the Ldtschenliicke
to the S.E. foot of the Jungfrau, which they chmbed on August
3, 181 1, the Guttannen porter having been sent back alone
over the Lotschenliicke. The party seems to have attained
the Roththalsattel by a route not now adopted, but there can
be no reasonable doubt that the highest summit of the peak
was gained, this being the first ascent. They then recrossed
the two passes named (both new) to their point of departure
in the Vallais, and went home again over the Grimsel. The
journey was a most extraordinary one for the time, and we
cannot be surprised that some envious persons threw doubts
on its complete success. To settle these another expedition
was undertaken in 1812. In this the two sons, Rudolf (1791-
1833) and Gottlieb (1793-1829), of J. R. Meyer, jr., played
the chief parts. After an unsuccessful attempt, defeated by
bad weather, in the course of which the Oberaarjoch was
crossed twice (this route being much more direct than the
long detour through the Lotschenthal), Rudolf, with the two
Vallais hunters (Alois Volker and Joseph Bortis), the Gut-
tannen porter (really named Arnold Abbiihl), and a Hasle
man, bivouacked on the depression, now known as the
Gemsliicke, on the S.E. ridge of the Finsteraarhorn. Next
day (August 16) the whole party attempted the ascent from
the Studer neve on the E. by way of the S.E. arete, but
Meyer, exhausted, remained behind with the Hasle man, the
three other guides alone having the honour of making the
first ascent of the Finsteraarhorn, the monarch of the Bernese
Oberland. The following day the party crossed the Grilnhorn-
likke (yet another new pass) to the Great Aletsch glacier, but
bad weather then put an end to further projects. At a bivouac,
probably just opposite the present Concordia Inn, the rest of
the party, having come over the Oberaarjoch and the Griin-
hornliicke, joined the Finsteraarhorn party. Gottlieb, Rudolfs
younger brother, had more patience than the rest and remained
longer at the huts near the Marjelen lake, where the adventurers
had taken refuge. His reward was the honour of making the
second ascent (September 3) of the Jungfrau, the Roththal-

2i8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

sattel being reached from the east as is now usual, and his
companions being the two Vallais hunters. His brother,
Rudolf, profiting by the return of the fine weather, succeeded
on the same day in making the first authentic and certain
passage of the Strahlegg Pass from the Unteraar glacier (above
the Grimsel) to Grindelwald, being accompanied by Abbiihl
and the Hasle man (Kaspar Huber). Meyer tells us that
the shepherds on the Zasenberg pastures, above the Lower
Grindelwald glacier, were extremely surprised at the arrival of
the adventurers. The next day Rudolfs uncle, Hieronymus,
and his party followed the tracks of their friends to the summit
of the pass, but did not venture to descend towards Grindel-
wald owing to thick mists.

Such is the barest outline of two most astonishing journeys
amid the highest snows of the Bernese Oberland. The present
writer, who has carefully studied the original narratives, and is
well acquainted with the ground covered, has no doubts what-
ever as to the complete success that attended these two journeys,
on which certain suspicions have been cast. The Meyers appear
on the scene no more, but what they did in 1811-12 is amply
sufficient to secure them a front rank among the early explorers
of the Alps.

The same two peaks, however, attracted other ambitious men.
A Soleure geologist, F. J. Hugi (i 796-1855), having been led by
his scientific wanderings into the Roththal, above Lauterbrunnen,
in the early days of August, 1828, conceived the idea of climbing
the Jungfrau from that side, and actually made an attempt. A
fortnight later this route was again tried (August 21) by two
Englishmen, Mr. Yeats Brown and Mr. Frederick Slade, with
nine local guides. Their plucky attack failed for various reasons,
but the Englishmen declare, in their account, that they consider
the ascent to be feasible, though very difficult. Hugi himself,
on August 19, 1828, tried the Finsteraarhorn from the W. by
the route now generally taken, but bad weather prevented the
party from pushing beyond the Hugisattel, on the N.W. ridge,
and about 600 ft. below the summit. In the same month of
August, 1828, yet a third party endeavoured to explore the high

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 219

snowy regions of the Bernese Oberland. Caspar Rohrdorf,
( 1 773-1843), an ofificial at Berne, with a number of men from
Grindehvald, really did cross the depressions now known as the
Unter and the Ober Monchjock, and so gained the E. foot of
the Jungfrau. But while he sent most of his men forward to
explore the way, he contented himself with excursionising to the
Jungfraujoch (not visited before) and climbing the great snowy
hump on it, called by him Sattelknopf (T^Qxax^^X of a saddle),
that is so conspicuous from the Wengern Alp. A few days
later, a fresh attempt (September 10) by some of his Grindelwald
men was completely successful, six Grindelwald peasants, all
bearing well-known local names, attaining the summit. They
later received a double ducat apiece from the Government of
Berne in recognition of their exploit, which opened yet a third
route to the eastern foot of the Jungfrau.

In 1S29 Hugi again besieged the Finsteraarhorn. After one
failure, his party succeeded (August 10) in once more reaching
the Hugisattel. But some way above it, Hugi did not dare to
cross a steep ice slope, so that two of his guides, Jakob Leuthold
and Johannes Wahren, both of Hasle, alone attained the summit,
where they built a cairn, fixing in it a pole, to which they attached
a flag. Let us add that it was not till 1842 that the first traveller,
Herr J. Sulger, of Basel, attained the top of the Finsteraarhorn,
where he found some iron rods, a rusty nail, and some threads,
all signs of an earlier visit. Both of the previous parties had left
flags on top, so that these relics might have belonged to one or
to the other.

Let us now turn to Monte Rosa. To the south of this great
mountain mass extend the twin valleys of the Lys (Gressoney)
and of the Sesia (Alagna), the head of each being inhabited
by a German-speaking colony, that has come hither from the
Vallais and settled down centuries ago. From the head of
either valley it is comparatively easy to reach the wide opening
of the Lysjoch (14,033 ft.) between the Lyskamm and the main
Monte Rosa mass. Perhaps it was a faint, dim recollection of
their descent, perhaps merely a laudable curiosity to verify an
old legend as to what lay behind this mighty wall of snow and

220 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

ice, that led to the first known exploration of the group. There
was also a certain rivalry between the men of the two valleys.
In 1778 the Gressoney men, hearing that the Alagna men
proposed to explore these regions, determined to get ahead of
them. So it was that on August 15, 1778, seven young fellows
from the German-speaking colony of Gressoney (among them
a Vincent and a Zumstein, names to be heard of again later)
made a valiant attempt to solve this mystery. They succeeded
in gaining a rocky tooth {c. 14,325 ft. in height), situated just
to the W. of the great opening of the Lysjoch, and named by
them the ' Rock of Discovery.' Hence they looked down into
the ' Lost Valley,' of which legends told, and which was simply
the immense hollow of ice and snow enclosed between Monte
Rosa and the Lyskamm. It is said some of them repeated this
expedition in 1779 ^"d in 1780, finally convincing themselves
that beyond the snows there were pastures, occupied by cows
and men; they were simply the 'alps' of the Riffel above
Zermatt. Nothing more came of this exploration for the time.
In 1 80 1 Dr. Pietro Giordani, of Alagna, vindicated the honour
of his valley by climbing the lofty spur (13,304 ft.) of Monte
Rosa that now bears his name. After a fruitless attack in 18 16
by Dr. F. Parrot with Joseph Zumstein, J. N. Vincent, 1 785-1 865
(son of one of the heroes of 1778), attained the summit called
after him the Vincent Pyramide (13,829 ft.), being followed five
days later by Herr Bernfaller, canon of the Great St. Bernard
and cure of Gressoney, while two days later Vincent himself re-
peated the climb, accompanied by a compatriot, Joseph Zumstein
(1783-1861). The way was now open. In 1820 a large party,
including J. N. Vincent, his younger brother, Joseph, and
Zumstein, mounted (July 31) to the 'Rock of Discovery,'
descended to the north, bivouacked in a tent pitched in a
crevasse in the midst of the great snowy hollow already spoken
of, and next morning reached the peak later known as the
Zumsteinspitze (15,004 ft.), but 200 ft. odd below the culminat-
ing summit of Monte Rosa. Here they erected an iron cross,
which, as well as the initials of Zumstein and the two Vincents,
carved in the highest rock, was found in 1886 by the present

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 221

writer's party. This was the loftiest peak of Monte Rosa
attained before 1848. Zumstein repeated the ascent of his
peak in 182 1 and in 1822, while in the latter year an Austrian,
Ludwig, Baron von Welden, mounted the lower summit, named
by him (like the other peaks mentioned above) and known as
the Ludwigshohe (14,259 ft.). These successes of the Gressoney
men naturally caused some jealousy in the Alagna valley. So
a young Alagna man, Giovanni Gnifetti (1801-1867), who in
1823 became assistant curate at Alagna, of which he was the
parish priest from 1834 to his death, undertook to vindicate
the honour of his native valley. After unsuccessful attempts
in 1834, 1836, and 1839, his perseverance was rewarded on
August 9, 1842, when he gained the top of the Signalkuppe
(14,965 ft.), a peak but little inferior in height to the Zumstein-
spitze, and now also known by the name Punta Gnifetti. The
final conquest (1848-1855) of the highest points of Monte Rosa
is most conveniently described in the following section.

If, however, the early attempts to conquer the second highest
summit in the Alps were not crowned with success, it was other-
wise with the loftiest peak in the Eastern Alps and in the Tyrol,
the Ortler (12,802 ft.), that fell at almost the first serious attempt
made to scale it. From 1800 onwards the Archduke John of
Habsburg (1782-1859 — son of the Emperor Leopold 11,, and
brother of Francis 11., the last of the Holy Roman Emperors —
made frequent journeys in the Eastern Alps, and continued his
wanderings till the year before his death, when he visited the
Rigi. His most important ascent was that of the Ankogel
(1826), though he took part in the attempt on the Gross
Venediger in 1828. On his very first journey (1800) the
archduke, struck by the glorious view of the Ortler that
is gained as the traveller descends from the Reschen
Scheideck to the head of the Vintschgau or upper Adige
valley, had commissioned a member of his suite (this command
recalls Charles viii. and Antoine de Ville in 1492), named
Gebhard, to explore, and, if possible, climb this splendid peak,
which Anich's Atlas of 1774 had declared to be the culminating
point of the Tyrol. Gebhard undertook the fulfilment of this

222 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

order in the summer of 1804, when he mounted to Sulden and
organised several attempts from that side, sending out his own
two Zillerthal guides as well as a number of men. But six or
seven attacks all ended in failure. Gebhard was plunged in
black despair, and sat miserably in his inn at Mais, his eyes
ever fixed on the invincible peak, that displayed all its beauties
to him in a more attractive form than ever. The landlord
suddenly announced that a chamois hunter of St. Leonhard, in
the Passeierthal, desired an interview with him. This man,
Joseph Pichler by name (commonly known as Josele), had been
previously indicated to Gebhard as the most likely person to
succeed in the conquest of the Ortler. Josele agreed to make
an attempt, and asked for a reward only in case of success.
With Gebhard's two Zillerthal men (Johann Leitner and Johann
Klausner) he left Trafoi at 1.30 a.m. the very next morning
(September 27, 1804), and at 10 a.m. Gebhard himself saw the
three bold mountaineers attain the coveted summit. In order
to avoid the glaciers as much as possible, the three climbed up
the rocks of the Hintere Wandln to the S.W. of the peak, a
route that even now is reckoned as distinctly difficult and
dangerous, while the party had only crampons and poles, but
neither ice-axe nor rope. They carried a barometer with them,
the reading of which showed that the Ortler was really higher
than its rival, the Gross Glockner. Hence the immense joy
with which their triumph was received was most genuine and
unalloyed, especially as they regained Trafoi safe and sound at
8 P.M. the same evening. Next year (1805) Josele discovered
a better, though not an easy route, from Sulden by the Hinter
Grat or S.E. ridge of the mountain. On August 30 (and again
on September 16) Gebhard himself achieved the ascent, this
being the sixth in all, but the first made by a traveller. It
shows what almost incredible pluck and courage the early
explorers had that on the night of September 13, thanks to
Josele and his men, a great bonfire was kindled on the summit
and blazed there for two hours, to the huge amazement of half
Tyrol — further, the brave men descended from the peak that
night by the light of torches. The giant was overcome, that

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 223

was enough. Doubtless this accounts for the fact that during
the next half-century but two ascents were made (in 1826 and
in 1834), Josele being the guide in either case, and selecting
on both occasions his original route of 1804. It was not
attained (despite several attempts) again till 1864, when it was
climbed by three Englishmen (Messrs. E. N. and H. E. Buxton,
and Mr. F. F. Tuckett), with Christian Michel, of Grindelwald,
and Fr. Biner, of Zermatt. Though the 1864 route has been
superseded by easier lines of ascent, it was that ascent which
revealed the Ortler to mountaineers in general, so that the 1864
party, all strangers to the region, deserve almost as much credit
as Josele and his two companions sixty years earlier.

The ascent of 1834 had been made by one Peter Carl
Thurwieser (i 789-1865), a Tyrolese ecclesiastic, who from 1820
onwards held the post of Professor of Oriental Languages at the
Lyceum at Salzburg. Blessed with small means, he had the true
spirit of a mountain wanderer, and is credited with having been
(despite his barometer and his botanical box) the first man in
the Eastern Alps who climbed peaks for the sake of climbing,
without any ulterior object — in short, the first real ' mountaineer '
(using that term in its restricted sense) in the Tyrol. He is said
to have climbed over seventy peaks, great and small, in his day, his
active career extending from 1820 to 1847. Of these the more
important (besides the Watzmann in 1820, the Ankogel in 1822,
the Gross Glockner in 1824, and the Ortler in 1834) were the first
ascents in 1833 of the Strahlkogel (in the Stubai region), in
1836 of the Fernerkogel (in the Stubai region), in 1846 of the
Gross Morchner, and in 1847 of the Schrammacher (both these
peaks belonging to the Zillerthal group). He also made the
first ascents by a traveller in 1825 of the Gross Wiesbachhorn
(Glockner group), in 1834 of the Dachstein, and in 1836
of the Habicht (Stubai Alps). He accompanied on several
climbs Prince Frederick von Schwarzenberg (1809-1885), who
was from 1835 to 1850 Prince-archbishop of Salzburg (later
of Prague, and cardinal in 1842). Among the chief ascents
made by the archbishop (without Thurwieser) were the Gross
Wiesbachhorn (1841) and at uncertain dates the Kitzteinhorn

224 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

and the Hochtenn, all three in the Glockner group. It is said
that once when the archbishop was on a confirmation round in
the Pinzgau he recognised among the crowd awaiting his arrival
a chamois hunter who had formerly served him as guide, and
whose hand he shook heartily, before attending to all the more
important ecclesiastics and laymen who stood around.

We come back to the Archduke John (with whom also
Thurwieser was acquainted) and his attempt on the Gross
Venediger (12,008 ft.) in 1828. An imperial forester, Paul
Rohregger, had conceived the idea of climbing this virgin
peak by the steep snow slopes on its N.W. slope, and had
convinced himself of the practicability of this route. Hence on
August 9, 1828, a party of 17 (including the archduke, and A.
von Ruthner), led by Rohregger, set out for the ascent. The
weather was superb, but the sun very hot, while fresh snow
delayed the advance of such a large party. Rohregger led the
way over the bergschrund, and was followed by three other
guides, who improved the steps he cut in the ice, while the
remainder were roped together and followed more slowly. At
a certain point, the state of the snow seemed so dangerous at
the late hour of the day (2 p.m.) that Rohregger advised retreat.
While this proposal was being debated an avalanche broke loose
above and swept away Rohregger into the yawning bergschrund
at the foot of the slope. This incident put an end at once to all
idea of further advance, though luckily Rohregger was rescued
without having suffered much damage. Such an experience
gave an evil reputation to the peak. But finally on September
3, 1 84 1, it was conquered (this time by its S.E. slope) by a large
party. No fewer than twenty-six persons attained the summit,
among them being old Rohregger and A. von Ruthner, who was
destined to play such a prominent part in the further exploration
of the Eastern Alps, and who survived long enough to celebrate
the jubilee of his exploit. Thus by 1841 three of the best
known Tyrolese peaks (the Ortler, the Gross Glockner, and the
Gross Venediger) had been subdued, but it was not till the
' sixties ' that the Eastern Alps finally yielded up most of their
secrets to the indefatigable curiosity of a few bold explorers.

.'•I

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 225

IV.— Ascents made between c. 1840 and 1865

This period may be described as that of the almost complete
conquest of the High Alps, though certain remoter districts did
not attract much attention till later. An examination of the
Chronological List printed below as Appendix 11. amply proves
this general statement, and gives the reader a bird's-eye view
of the gradual spread and increase of climbs among the High
Alps. There is thus a superabundance of matter to consider,
but our limits do not allow us to do more than indicate a few
of the main features of this great extension of mountaineering
zeal. It seems best, therefore, to give first a short account of
the principal continental climbers during this period, and then
to dwell more in detail on the exploits of English mountaineers,
who appeared later on the scene than their foreign rivals, but
completed their work.

The most prominent figure in the Alpine history of our period
is, of course, Gottlieb Studer (1804-1890), of Berne. Born
only five years after the death of Saussure, he made his first
ascent at the early age of four years in 1808 (before the Jungfrau
had been vanquished), that of a hill named Rafriiti (3950 ft.),
near Langnau in the Emmenthal, and repeated this expedition
in 1883, seventy-five years later. His own list of mountain
climbs extends from 1823 to 1883, and includes six hundred
and forty-three distinct entries, while between 1823 and 1881 he
drew no fewer than seven hundred and ten mountain panoramas
and views. His first high expedition seems to have been an
attack on the Diablerets in 1825 (he made the first ascent of
this peak in 1850), and his last the Pic d'Arzinol in 1883. His
best work was done between 1839 and 1876, and lay mainly
in the Bernese Oberland and the Pennines, though he visited all
other parts of the Swiss Alps, not to speak of the Dauphine
(185 1 and 1873), ^^ Graians (1855, 1856, and 1858), and the
Tyrol (1846 and 1880). Everywhere he went he made new
ascents or passes, or opened routes known previously only to
the natives. He published comparatively little, though his
p

226 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

detailed MS, accounts are still carefully preserved. But his
two maps of the Southern Valleys of the Vallais (1849 ^^^
1853), and his elaborate history of climbing in the Swiss Alps,
issued in 4 vols., 1869-1883 (new edition in 3 vols., 1896-9),
under the title of Ueber Eis und Schnee, have proved of the
highest value to his successors. He must be distinguished
from his cousin Bernard (1794-1887), also of Berne, who also
travelled much in the Alps for the sake of his geological studies,
whereas Gottlieb devoted his attention rather to topography
and actual climbing. Of the early Ziirich school of climbers,
Melchior Ulrich (1802-1893) is the principal. His first Alpine
journey dates from 1814, and he ascended the Titlis as early
as 1833, while his last high climb was made in 187 1. He
travelled a good deal with Gottlieb Studer. Historically his
great achievement was the exploration, from 1847 to 1852, of
the glacier passes around Zermatt, at that time barely known
by name. Later he devoted himself mainly to Eastern Switzer-
land. Another Ziirich climber of those days was Heinrich
Zeller-Hor7ier (1810-1897), whose activity was mainly confined
to Central and Eastern Switzerland. Georg Hoffmanfi (1808-
1858), of Basel, specialised on the peaks around the Maderaner-
thal, publishing thereon an interesting work in 1843, though his
great Panorama of that range, drawn in 1852, was not published
till 1865. Adouard Desor (1811-1882), of Neuchatel, is best
known as one of the early scientific men who studied on the
spot glacial phenomena and especially the vexed question of
the motion of glaciers. It was probably because he chose
as the scene of his labours, from 1840 to 1845, the Unteraar
glacier, above the Grimsel, that as a mountaineer his name
is associated almost exclusively with the high peaks of the
Bernese Oberland. So in 1841 he made the first ascent of
the Ewigschneehorn and the fourth of the Jungfrau (not visited
since 1828), in 1842 the first ascent of the Gross Lauteraarhorn,
in 1844 the first ascent of the Rosenhorn peak of the Wetter-
horner (his two Meiringen guides being sent a few days later
to conquer the Hasle Jungfrau summit of that group), finally
in 1845 the second ascent (the first by a traveller) of the Hasle

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 227

Jungfrau, and the second ascent of the Galenstock. His two works
(1844-5), together with those of Gottlieb Studer, G. Hofitmann,
and J. D. Forbes (all issued in 1843), formed, till 1856-7, the
principal books devoted for the most part to descriptions of
climbs among the High Alps. A line of mention must also
be accorded to J. Coaz (still living), who, from 1846 to 1850,
climbed many peaks in the Engadine, including its highest
summit, the Piz Bernina (1850).

Of a younger generation are the three following mountaineers.
J. J. Weilenmann (1819-1896), of St. Gall, did not begin his
Alpine career proper till the early 'fifties': in 1855 ^^ made
the second ascent of Monte Rosa, while his total list is stated
to exceed three hundred and fifty peaks and passes, all in
Switzerland or the western portion of the Tyrol. He is probably
the first amateur who made high ascents without any companion
whatsoever. The Austrians, Karl von Sonklar (181 6-1 885),
Anton von Ruthner (1817-1897), J. A. Specht (1828-1894), and
E. von Mojsisovics (1839-1907), all explored different regions
of the Eastern Alps, and wrote (this does not, however, apply to
the second couple) elaborate w^orks relating to their wanderings.

This list of pre-1865 Continental climbers may suffice, as it
includes the chief names of those who have died, though it
might easily be made much longer.

The attentive reader may have noticed, perhaps with some
astonishment, that hitherto the names of English climbers
mentioned in this chapter have been few and far between.
The simple reason for this apparent neglect is that before about
1840 very few Englishmen made any high ascents, a fact which
is certainly curious. From 1840 to 1855 the number grows,
while from 1855 onwards the English explorers of the High
Alps carry all before them, even though their number does not
come up to that of their foreign rivals.

Up to about 1840 the present writer, who has taken some
pains to look into the matter, has only discovered the following
high climbs made by Englishmen, including in that term

228 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Scotchmen and Americans. Mr, Hill in 1786 reopened the Col
du Geant, and was followed by one or two parties, among which
were Mrs. and Miss Campbell (1822), the earliest English lady
climbers of whom the names have come down to us. Colonel
Beaufoy went up Mont Blanc in 1787, but up to 1840 we cannot
reckon more than a dozen English parties which had followed
in his steps. Mr. Cade's party crossed the St. Theodule in 1800,
and he too had a few successors among his compatriots, such as
Mr. William Brockedon (1825), and Mr. Frank Walker (1826).
The Zermatt Breithorn was visited in 1822 by Sir John Herschel,
and again in 1830 by Lord ]\Iinto. In 1828 Mr. Frederick Slade
and Mr. Yeats Brown made a valiant, though unsuccessful,
attempt to climb the Jungfrau from the Roththal, while in 1826
Mr. Frank Walker crossed the Oberaarjoch and in 1835 Mr.
Callander what seems to be the Old Strahlegg Pass. In 1828-9
Mr. William Brockedon visited one glacier pass in the Graians,
and went over a number of lower passes, his descriptions form-
ing the basis of Part 11. of Murray's Handbook for Switzerland,
Savoy, and Piedmont, which first appeared in 1838. The list is
not long. Yet in it there are no climbs that were made for the
first time, save two doubtful exceptions — Mr. Hill only 're-
opened ' the Col du Geant, known over a century before, while
Mr. Callander's guides probably took him over the Old Strahlegg
by mistake, without in the least intending to make a ' new
expedition.' In short, up to about 1840, English travellers, who
were many, showed a deplorable lack of Alpine ambition.

But matters take a different aspect from about 1840 to 1850.
True, only four English ascents of Mont Blanc are recorded in
that period, though in 1841 a plucky Scotchwoman, Mrs. Cowan,
crossed the Strahlegg. But in 1839 we find the names of two
Englishmen mentioned as having made some sort of mild high
expedition. In that year A. T. Malkin (1803-1888) went up the
Buet and over the Tschingel Pass, while in 1840 he crossed the
St. Theodule twice, and also traversed the Lotschen Pass, climbing
the Hockenhorn on the way — in 1843 he went over the Strahlegg,
then, beating Brockedon, crossed the Col de la Galise, and
followed the steps of Forbes over the Col de Collon and the Col

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 229

d'Herens. In 1839, too,y. D. Forbes (1809-1868, later Principal
of the United College in St. Andrews) crossed the Col della
Nouva (near Cogne) and some passes near Monte Viso, also visit-
ing the Veneon valley in the Dauphine Alps. In 1841 he traversed
two glacier passes (the Col du Says and the Col du Sellar) in
the Dauphine Alps, and two in the Bernese Oberland (the Gauli
Pass and the Oberaarjoch), besides making the second ascent
of the Ewigschneehorn and the fourth (the first non-Swiss) of
the Jungfrau. In 1842 he went over the Cols du Geant, de
Collon, and d'Herens, and the St. Theodule, ascending from
the Col d'Herens the Stockhorn, near by. In 1844 he ascended
the Wasenhorn, near the Simplon, while in 1850 he crossed the
Col Blanc (near the Col du Tour) and the Fenetre de Saleinaz.
This list of Forbes's climbs is really superb for the time, and
entitles him (without in the least taking into account his
immense services to the cause of natural science) to be con-
sidered as the earliest English mountaineer, who regularly
undertook high ascents for a series of years, for Malkin con-
tented himself mainly with passes. Forbes tells us in one
passage of his writings that the Riffelhorn was first climbed in
1842 by some English students from Fellenberg's famous school
at Hofwyl, near Berne, but in another place he attributes this
exploit to some local goat-herds. If we disregard this peak, as
being too low to count, it is Forbes himself who has the honour
of having made the earhest ' first ascents ' achieved by a British
subject, for both his Stockhorn (11,795 ft.), in 1842, and his
Wasenhorn (10,680 ft.), in 1844, were apparently virgin peaks,
though he is run close by his brother Scotsman, Mr. Speer, who
in 1845 made the first ascent of the Mittelhorn (12,166 ft.), the
culminating point of the three Wetterhorner. Forbes's book,
Travels through the Alps of Savoy, issued in 1843, was the first
English book (as distinguished from pamphlets, such as those
published by the heroes who went up Mont Blanc) devoted to
the High Alps. In another way, too, Forbes is important in the
history of Alpine exploration, for he tells us expressly that he
tried to follow the example set by Saussure in his great work
on the Alps, and in 1826 he actually had with him one of

230 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Saussure's guides, J. M. Cachat, nicknamed 'le Geant' (so
called owing to his having gone round the Aiguille du Geant
on the passage of the col of that name). On the other hand,
he encouraged Wills, Tuckett, and Adams-Reilly, in the period
from 1857 to 1866, and thus served as a link, so to speak,
which bound Saussure to his true heirs, who half a century
after his death were just taking up the non-scientific as well as
the scientific part of his labours and carrying them towards their
ultimate goal.

Even more important than Forbes, so far as regards an active
and powerful direct influence on the rising generation of
ambitious English cUmbers, is John Ba// (iSiS-i8Sg), an Irish-
man, who, as years went on, freed himself from the cares of
State and devoted himself, more fervently than ever, to his
favourite pursuit of botany, which carried him far and wide
through every district of the Alps. He had tried Mont Blanc
in 1840, also climbing the Grauhaupt and crossing the St. Theo-
dule. In 1845 he discovered and traversed (serving as guide to
his so-called Zermatt guide) the glacier pass of the Schwarzthor,
near Zermatt, while in 1852 he went over the Strahlegg. But
his real Alpine career commenced in 1853 and lasted till 1866.
He was up the Gross Glockner (perhaps the first Englishman on
this mountain) in 1854, while in 1857 he made the first ascent
of the Pelmo (the first great Dolomite peak to feel man's foot),
in i860 tried the yet virgin Marmolata (highest of all Dolomites),
and was the first to reach the Cima Tosa (1865) in the Brenta
Dolomites. His other ascents were comparatively unimportant,
for, as a botanist, passes appealed more to him, and by 1863
(as he tells us himself) he had crossed the main chain of the
Alps forty-eight times by thirty-two different passes, besides
traversing nearly a hundred of the lateral passes. Of his activity
in the early years of the Alpine Club more will be said below.
Few men, if any, have ever known the whole of the Alps better
than he did, while none did while he was in his prime. Yet in
the actual number of high climbs he is only among the first,
not at the head of the list, partly because it scarcely entered
into his plans to undertake high expeditions other than those

I

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 231

which might really assist him in some department (botanical or
topographical) of his life's work.

By 1850 the period of preparation had arrived, and English
climbers began to occupy the field. Whereas from 1787 to
1850 there had only been seventeen English (including the one
American party, and Mr. Nicholson, who went up in 1843 ^^i'^^
the Prior of Chamonix) ascents of Mont Blanc to sixteen non-
English, travellers of no nationaUty other than English or Ameri-
can (eleven of these only) made the ascent of Mont Blanc in
1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, and 1855, while in 1854 there were three
non-English only, and in 1856 and in 1857 but one. The mere
number of ascents and travellers vastly increased from 1854
onwards. The sudden change is startling, and is not altogether
to be explained by the great vogue of Albert Smith's enter-
tainment (in 1852) on the subject of his ascent in 1851. It
is rather a sign that at last Englishmen were waking up to the
fact that ' mountaineering ' is a pastime that combines many
advantages, and is worth pursuing as an end in itself, without
any regard to any thought of the advancement of natural
science.

Here let us commemorate briefly a bold young English
climber, Eardley J. Blackwell, whose memory now survives only
in a few scattered notices, but whose exploits were very remark-
able for the date. In 1850 he made the first travellers' passage
of the New Weissthor near Zermatt, and traversed the Col du
Geant. In 1852 he crossed, in an unusually short time, the
Tschingel Pass and the Strahlegg. In June, 1854, he climbed
the Hasle Jungfrau (Wetterhorner) from the Rosenlaui side
(being the first Englishman to reach the summit). A few days
later he tried it from the Grindelwald side, though failing,
owing to a violent storm, while the iron flag he planted just
below the final corniche was found three months later by Mr.
(later Sir Alfred) Wills. On all these climbs he was accom-
panied by Christian Bleuer, one of the early Grindelwald
guides, who does not, however, seem to have been with him
when he ascended Mont Blanc early in August, 1854. Mr.
Heathman, who met him in that year at Chamonix, tells us that

232 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

he made the last-named ascent in two hours less than any pre-
ceding party. He thus describes him: 'The fact is, there
was no guide the match for him. He was six feet three, rather
bony, but carrying no weight ; he had the eye of a hawk and
the legs of a chamois, combined with the utmost enterprise,
perseverance, and courage. He made light of the ascent of
Mont Blanc. As to its difficulties, he said they by no means
equalled his previous feats, though the time required was longer.
He was perfectly acquainted with every nook and corner of the
Alps, having walked over them, in them, and among them,
forward and backward, up and down, in every direction, for three
years. On parting with him for his ascent [of Mont Blanc], I
wished him success, and all the pleasure which he anticipated,
"Although," said I, "I confess I do not know what that is."
He replied he did not know either, except, being an idle man,
he loved the excitement, and always felt a desire to do what
others had done before him.'

After some preliminary skirmishes, for training purposes, the
ball was opened (quite apart from Mont Blanc) in 1854. The
establishment of the Hotel on the Riffelberg (1854) greatly
facilitated excursions in the neighbourhood of Monte Rosa. In
1847 MM. Ordinaire and Puiseux had made the first attempt on
the highest peak from the Swiss side, but the party only reached
the Silbersattel, the depression between the two highest summits.
In 1848 the two guides of Herr M. Ulrich attained the Grenz-
gipfel (15,194 ft.), the point at which the great spur, on which
rises the loftiest point of Monte Rosa, joins the main watershed,
and in 1851 the brothers Schlagintweit, with two guides, gained
the same point. It thus rises to the E. of the highest crest of
Monte Rosa, which is crowned by two horns — the Ostspitze
and the Dufourspitze— the latter (15,217 ft.) being slightly the
higher. Now it was on September i, 1854, that the Ostspitze
was first certainly ascended, the conquerors being three young
Englishmen, the brothers Smyth, who were followed on Septem-
ber II by Mr. E. S. Kennedy. But neither of these parties,
for reasons now undiscoverable, pushed on to the W., over the
not difficult ridge, to the very loftiest summit. A few days after

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 233

these exploits, on September 17, 1854, Mr. (now Sir Alfred)
Wills succeeded in making the first ascent of the Hasle Jung-
frau peak (already ascended at least twice previously by another
route) from Grindelwald ; it had been nearly attained by the
same route, on June 13, by Mr. Eardley J. Blackwell, another
Englishman, and attempted as early as 1845 by a Swiss party.
These two ascents, especially that of the Wetterhorn, which was
quite complete, open the era of English rule over the highest
summits of the Alps. Next year, on July 31, 1855, a large
English party, comprising the Revs. Christopher and Grenville
Smyth (two of the heroes of 1854), E. J. Stevenson, and Charles
Hudson (to perish in 1865 on the Matterhorn) and Mr. J. Birk-
beck, with four guides, at length attained the very highest tip of
the loftiest point of Monte Rosa, the second peak in the Alps,
then first won by man — they took the now usual route from the
Sattel on the W., which does not seem to have been tried before.
A fortnight later, on August 14, the two Smyths and Mr.
Hudson, with the addition of Messrs. E. S. Kennedy and
C. Ainslie, but without guides, had the honour of making the
first ascent of Mont Blanc from St. Gervais by way of the
Dome du Goiter, thus opening up a new route which enabled
travellers to resist the exactions of the Chamonix guides. The
party descended from the Dome to the Grand Plateau and com-
pleted the ascent by the ordinary route. It was not till 1859
that a party ventured to push from the Grand Plateau over the
Bosses du Dromadaire to the summit, while it was only in 1861
that the first complete ascent from St. Gervais over the Dome
and the Bosses was effected. But the exploit of 1855 was a
very great one, and all the more noteworthy because on August 8
previous, the same party, with Messrs. Stevenson and Joad, but
without guides also, had very nearly effected the ascent of Mont
Blanc from the Col du Geant by way of the Mont Blanc du
Tacul ; this way had been tried on July 31, by Mr. (now Sir) J. H.
Ramsay, who actually reached the Mur de la Cote, whereas the
others were driven back from the top of the Mont Blanc du
Tacul (13,941 ft.), of which one member of the party made the
first ascent in order to reconnoitre. Messrs. Hudson and Kennedy

234 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

published an account of their feat of 1855 on Mont Blanc
under the title of Where there ^s a Will there 's a Way (to
the second edition, also issued in 1856, there was added an
account of the conquest of Monte Rosa), while in 1856 Mr.
Wills published his Wanderings among the High Alps, that was
followed in 1857 by Mr. Hinchliff's Summer Months among the
Alps ; these three works were the first literary products of the
new English school of mountaineers, and so are historically very
important. In 1856 a number of young Englishmen tried,
though in vain, to complete the St. Gervais route by the Bosses,
and to strike out a new route up Mont Blanc from the Col de
Miage. This party (none of whom have yet been named) repre-
sents an accession of numbers to those of 1855. In 1857 still
more new men come into prominence. On August 13 the Rev. J.
F. Hardy, Messrs. William and St. John Mathews, R. EUis,
and E. S. Kennedy, with a number of guides, achieved the first
English ascent of the Finsteraarhorn (the fifth in all, though
the second by travellers), while on August 20 Mr. John Ball
reached (alone) the lowest of the three summits of the Trugberg,
and on September 19 (again alone) the highest point of the
Pelmo in the Dolomites, both 'first ascents.' Mr. William
Mathews had in 1854 climbed the Mont Velan, and in 1856
Monte Rosa, and on August 19, 1857, was the first traveller to
reach the Pointe de Graffeneire (14,108 ft.), only fifty-six feet
below the highest point of the Grand Combin, while on August
7, 1857, Mr. Eustace Anderson, attempting the Gross Schreck-
horn, had vanquished the Klein Schreckhorn.

The idea of founding a society to serve as a rallying-point for
all Englishmen interested in the novel pastime of moun-
taineering was first thrown out in a letter written on February i,
1857, by Mr. Mathews to Mr. Hort. On August 3, 1857, Mr.
William Mathews made the acquaintance of Mr. Kennedy, while
both were walking down the Hasle valley, a few days before their
joint ascent of the Finsteraarhorn. The idea quickly ripened,
and took form on November 6, 1857, at a private dinner held at
the residence of the Mathews family in Birmingham, several
members of that family being present as well as Mr. Kennedy.

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 235

If the first idea came from Mr. William Mathews (i 828-1901),
there is no doubt that it was Mr. Kennedy (1817-1898) 'who
was chiefly responsible for carrying the idea into practical effect,'
for he it was who communicated with the English climbers of
the day, inviting them to join together with this object in view.
His letters met with unexpected success ; the first meeting was
held on December 22, 1857, and the first dinner (for originally
the ' Alpine Club ' was merely a dining society, hence its name,
thou2;h it would be better described as an ' Association ' or a
'Society') took place on February 2, 1858, when Mr. Kennedy
was elected Vice-President, and Mr. Hinchliff (1826-1882)
Honorary Secretary ; the Presidency was not filled up till
March 31, 1858, when Mr. John Ball was elected to the office.
The list of ' original members ' (several of whom still survive,
though two only are still in the Club) contained thirty-four
names, but in 1859 there were already one hundred and twenty-
four members, while on July 19, 1859, J. D. Forbes was most
deservedly elected the first Honorary Member.

It was obvious that the young society must justify its existence
to the outer world, then still somewhat sceptical as to the
advantages of mountaineering. Its first literary production,
entitled Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers, and edited by Mr. John Ball,
appeared in the spring of 1859, while in 1862 a second series in
two volumes, but under the same title, was brought out under
the direction of the indefatigable Mr. Kennedy. Both works
met with great success, though scoffers were not wanting to
predict evil things as to this novel method of trying to break
one's neck.

The years that lie between 1859 and 1865 are the ' golden age '
of mountaineering. The Chronological List, printed as Appen-
dix II. below, will show how peak after peak fell before the
furious onslaught of the youthful enthusiasts. Among the most
brilliant lights of that wonderful period, four men (we mention
only those who have passed away from us) stand out above their
fellows. William Matheivs swept through the Western and
Central Alps, his most glorious conquests (after 1857) being the
Eigerjoch and the Lysjoch (1859), the Grande Casse (i860),

236 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Monte Viso (1861), and Mont Pourri (1862, reached first in
in October 1861 by his guide, Michel Croz) ; his explorations in
the South-Western Alps and elsewhere form one of the most
brilliant pages in the annals of mountaineering, and make one
regret that his active climbing career extended only from 1854
to 1863. Next we have Leslie Stephen (1832-1904), with his
grand bag of Alpine novelties, mainly in the Bernese Oberland
— Eigerjoch, Bietschhorn, and Rimpfischhorn (1859), Bliimlis-
alphorn and Oberaarhorn (i860), Gross Schreckhorn (1861),
Jungfraujoch, Fiescherjoch, and Monte della Disgrazia (1862),
and Zinal Rothhorn (1864), while the Mont Mallet (187 1) and
Col des Hirondelles (1873), as well as his historic Dolomite
wanderings (1869) and his splendid book (1871), belong to a
later period. Then we have A. IV. Moore (1841-1887), the
English climber who devoted himself most fervently to the
Bernese Oberland, though his list includes many other mag-
nificent climbs — Jungfraujoch, Gross Fiescherhorn, Sesiajoch
(1862), the Pointe des Ecrins and the Col de la Pilatte, both in
the Dauphine Alps, and the Moming Pass (1864), the Ober
Gabelhorn, Mont Blanc from the Brenva glacier, and Piz Roseg
(1865), besides his passages (1866) of the Strahlegg and the
Finsteraarjoch in winter, thus opening up a new form of moun-
taineering. His book The Alps in 1864 (privately issued in
1867, published in 1902) is one of the most delightful works on
the Alps ever written. And, as we think of these three EngUsh-
men who so loved the Bernese Oberland, let us join with them
the Bernese climber, Edmund von Fellenberg (i 838-1 902), whose
entire Alpine career, from 1856 to 1883, was exclusively given
to that district, which he knew topographically, geologically, and
bibliographically, perhaps better than, certainly as well as, any
of his contemporaries. Let us also record here the fact that the
twelve sheets of the Dufour map which figure the Swiss Alps
were published between 1845 and 1865, the name Dufourspitze
being conferred in 1863 on the highest point of Monte Rosa
(the loftiest peak rising wholly within Swiss territory) by the
Swiss Federal Government in honour of the head of the survey
thus happily completed (the original minutes on a large scale,

EXPLORATION OF THE HIGH ALPS 237

now known as the Siegfried Atlas, were issued from 1870
onwards).

The glorious weather that prevailed during the summer of
1 86 1 was profitably employed to conquer many lofty peaks that
had hitherto defied the efforts of puny men to surmount them.
The harvest was less plentiful in 1862, the year which saw the
foundation of the Austrian Alpine Club, the first child of
the Alpine Club. But the year 1863 saw many fresh defeats
of proud peaks. It was noteworthy, too, for a series of events
which showed how the taste for climbing was extending and
developing. In March, 1863, the Alpine Club issued the first
number of the Alpine Journal^ a quarterly intended to appear
more frequently than annual or triennial volumes, and the first
periodical that was wholly devoted to the mountains. In April,
1863, the Swiss Alpine Club was founded, and in October the
Italian Alpine Club. Finally, in July, 1863, Mr. John Ball
brought out vol. i. (Western Alps) of his Alpt?ie Guide, in the
compilation of which all the prominent English climbers of the
day had assisted him. Thus the Alps had now a special
periodical and a special guide-book of their own. Mr. Ball's
second vol. (Central Alps) was issued in 1864, but vol. iii.,
describing the Eastern Alps, did not come out till 1868.

The climbing season of 1864 was by far the most brilliant
that had yet been recorded. Yet its splendour pales before
the extraordinary triumphs achieved in that of 1865, as will be
seen on reference to our Chronological List (Appendix 11.),
though this does not reckon in the numerous difficult glacier
passes that were forced in these two memorable years.

Shall we say that pride goes before a fall ? or shall we count
it simply as a last expiring act of revenge on the part of the
Spirit of the Mountains ? The great exploit of the summer of
1865 was the conquest of the Matterhorn, that proud summit
which for years had baffled the most persevering efforts of the
most accomplished mountaineers, amateur or professional.
Yet on July 14, it, too, had to yield to the foot of man, while the
ascent, achieved by a route hitherto never seriously attempted,
proved far easier than had ever been anticipated. But, as is

238 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

well known, on the descent, a frightful accident occurred,
wherein four men perished, while three (Mr. E. Whymper
and two Zermatt guides) were saved by the breaking of the
rope between the two divisions of the party. Those who
died in the moment of victory were the Rev. Charles Hudson
(b. 1828), often mentioned above; Lord Francis Douglas
(b. 1847), ^ very skilful mountaineer; Mr. D. Hadow, a
young man, spending his first season amongst the Alps; and
the guide, Michel Croz (b. 1830), of Chamonix, one of the best
of the day. Though this catastrophe occurred quite early in the
season, its full effect was not realised till after its close. Never
before had so many lives — still less those of three Englishmen —
been lost at one time on a high peak, never before had such
experienced climbers paid the penalty of a shp, never before had
a 'milor's' life ended in such tragic fashion, never before had
victory in the Alps been so quickly followed by Death. It was
the most dramatic event in a most dramatic year, and the cause
of mountaineering seemed to be lost for ever, so deep and
lasting was the impression made by this terrible event.

-3

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CHAPTER X

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING IN THE HIGH ALPS

THREE days after the Matterhorn accident, and on the
very day when that peak was first attained from the
Italian side, the present writer made his first Alpine ascent, that
of the Niesen, near Thun. Two months later he made his first
glacier expedition, the Strahlegg, and visited Zermatt. He was
thus one of the earliest recruits to mountaineering after the
accident, and went on climbing for thirty-three years. Hence he
can recollect vividly the sort of palsy that fell upon the good cause
after that frightful catastrophe of July 14, 1865, particularly
amongst English climbers. Few in numbers, all knowing each
other personally, shunning the public gaze as far as possible
(and in those days it was possible to do so), they went about
under a sort of dark shade, looked on with scarcely disguised
contempt by the world of ordinary travellers. They, so to speak,
climbed on sufferance, enjoying themselves much, it is true, but
keeping all expression of that joy to themselves in order not to
excite derision. There were then few Club huts and few con-
veniences in the shape of high mountain hotels. But there was
no crowd on the hills, and one could still revel in the silence
that reigned among them. The journey from England to the Alps
was still expensive and took a long time. That drawback did not
affect foreign climbers so much, but even they felt the mountain
gloom that prevailed. A glance at our Chronological List of
Ascents (Appendix 11.) will show that from 1866 till about 1870
not so many important peaks (yet there was no lack of abundance
of such peaks to conquer) were vanquished as during the
previous five or six years. A closer study will reveal the fact

239

240 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

that the summits which fell in that dark period were the booty of
relatively very few men, though this feature was perhaps less well
marked in the Eastern Alps. Two personal experiences may
illustrate this sorrowful period in the history of climbing. Early
in July, 1 868, the present writer met, in the Gleckstein cave on
the Wetterhorn, Mr. Julius Elliott (who was killed next year on
the Schreckhorn). In the course of conversation Mr. Elliott
revealed, almost under the seal of confession, his strong desire,
even his fixed intention, to attempt shortly the Matterhorn from
the Swiss side. This feat he achieved a fortnight later, this
being the first complete ascent on that side since the accident.
It caused a very great sensation, as it proved that the expedition
was not so absolutely certain to end fatally as had been
imagined by many. The charm had been broken, but it
required a man of strong will to break it. Some years later, in
1 87 1, when it fell to the turn of the present writer to ascend the
Matterhorn, it was still considered a most remarkable thing that
within the same week two ascents of the dreaded peak should
have been made with complete success.

Little by little the inevitable reaction set in, as it was more
and more clearly realised that climbing high peaks did not
without fail end in a catastrophe. In 1869 the German Alpine
Club was founded, and in 1873 it was united with the Austrian
Alpine Club (founded in 1862) under the name of the ' German
and Austrian Alpine Club.' In 1870 (despite the war) the
number of fine new climbs, especially those made by Englishmen,
shows a distinct advance. This fresh start is particularly marked
in 187 1. In that year also Leslie Stephen published his delightful
work The Flaygroutid of Europe, and Mr. Whymper his remark-
able Scrambles amongst the Alps in the Years 1860-9, both books
stimulating powerfully the new current that had begun to run
again after being blocked for several years. In 187 1, too, the
Alpine Club took a fresh lease of life. It had been held by
some that all the Alps being now conquered, its task was over,
and that its periodical, the Alpi?ie Journal, might well be allowed
to expire, through the apprehended difficulty of securing
material wherewith to fill its pages. But the appointments, at

1

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 241

the end of 187 1, of Mr. A. W. Moore as Honorary Secretary of
the Club, and of Mr. Douglas Freshfield as Editor of the
Alpine Journal, proved the turning-point in its fortunes. In
1861 it had numbered but 158 members, but in 1871 the list
rose to 298 and in 1875 ^o 361. The bold ascent of Monte
Rosa from Macugnaga, in 1872, by the Rev. C. Taylor and Messrs.
R. and W. M. Pendlebury, showed that the Alps were not yet
' exhausted,' and the lists of new ascents begin to increase year
by year. In January, 1874, great Alpine peaks (the Wetterhorn
and the Jungfrau) were ascended for the first time in winter,
both exploits being achieved by the present writer's aunt (whom
he accompanied), these climbs indicating also the gradual spread
of mountaineering by ladies, which was still in its infancy. In
1874, too, the French Alpine Club was founded, the latest born
of the great Alpine Clubs of Europe. The ' revival ' was now in
full swing and was never more to be checked. Yet it was from
the end of the ' seventies ' that fatal accidents in the High Alps
became more and more common. Hitherto they had been com-
paratively rare. Now they increased in number even more
rapidly than did the rising number of persons who made high
ascents. Perhaps this was due to a diminution in the feeling of
mystery and awe that had long half-veiled the mountains,
perhaps to a lamentable want of prudence, due also to the
growing familiarity with the Alps, though not with their dangers.
The present writer realised all too keenly this terrible growth in
the number of Alpine accidents, for he was Editor of the
Alpine Journal (in succession to Mr. Freshfield) from 1880 to
1889, and he will never forget the distressing task that awaited
him every autumn of telling the tale (in a double sense) of the
mishaps of the past season, and then of passing judgment upon
the unfortunate victims.

This revived interest in climbing naturally brought with it
new developments, whether for good or for evil. Let us
therefore pause here a moment in order to mention certain
matters that are only indirectly connected with these new
developments.

The twenty years that elapsed between 187 1-3 and 189 1-3 saw
Q

242 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the completion of the conquest of the Alps, to mention only the
most glorious feats of arms — the two summits of the Rosen-
garten in 1872 and 1874, the Sass Maor in 1875, the Meije in
1877, the Aiguille du Dru in 1878, the Aiguille des Grands
Charmoz in 1880, the Aiguille de Grepon in 1881, the
Aiguille Blanche de Peteret in 1885, and a whole series of not
very lofty but exceedingly difficult Dolomite needles between
1884 (Croda da Lago) and 1890 (the Fiinffingerspitze). It saw
also the reorganisation of the practical side of climbing — new
Club huts were built, new high mountain hotels were opened,
detailed special maps and guide-books for climbers only
appeared in rapid succession ; everything was made more con-
venient for the new generation, who, however, found that
little more was left to them in search of novelty than the
discovery of 'new routes' and of 'inaccessible' pinnacles which
received names only after they had been vanquished. Among
the more prominent climbers of the post-1865 period a few may
be here commemorated, keeping to our rule that only those are
spoken of who are now at rest. Charles Edward Mathews
(1834-1905), younger brother of William Mathews, began his
Alpine career indeed before 1857, and was one of the founders
of the Alpine Club. But his best climbs were made after 1865,
while his one book, the Annals of Mont Blanc, did not appear
till 1898. Another devoted lover of the Mont Blanc chain was
Charles Mathews's close friend, Anthony Adams-Reilly (1836-
1885), whose admirable maps of that chain (1865) and of the
Southern Valleys of Monte Rosa (1868) are most remarkable,
viewed as achievements of a single amateur, for, so far as
topography goes, they bear well a comparison with the work of
the great Government Surveys. Horace Walker (i 838-1 908),
like C. E. Mathews, did much of his best Alpine work after
1865, though his Alpine career began in 1854. He un-
fortunately wrote but little about his experiences, though he
was probably the senior Alpine climber on the roll when his
activity came to an end in 1905. Another name cannot be passed
over, although comparatively little has been published as to his
climbs, which began before 1857 — the Swiss Eugene Ranihert

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 243

(1830-1886), for the 5 vols, of his Alpes Suisses (1866-1875,
new edition in 6 vols., 1887-9) contain but few personal im-
pressions of his ascents. And his name cannot be separated
from that of his pupil, so to speak, Emi/e /avelle (1847-1883), a
Frenchman by birth, but a Swiss by adoption, whose Souvenirs
d^un A /pim's^e appesLved in 1886. Of the younger or post-1870
generation the following adventurers are associated with some
magnificent, if too daring, feats of climbing. A. F. Mummery
(1855-1895) devoted himself mainly to the Mont Blanc
Aiguilles and to the Matterhorn, so far as the Alps were con-
cerned, but he also climbed in the Caucasus and perished in the
Himalaya — his one book. My Climbs in the Alps and Caucasus^
was issued in 1895, j^st before his untimely end. Then we
have L-udwig Normait-Neruda (i 864-1 898), most cosmopolitan
of mountaineers, for he boasted of having no fewer than seven
mother-tongues. He was most fascinated by the Dolomites,
which figured largely in the posthumous collection of his
writings, published in 1899. It was during this later period
from the early seventies onwards that the ' Austrian school of
mountaineers' made its mark and startled many steady-going
persons by the extraordinarily bold exploits of its members. Its
chief was Ludivig Purtscheller (i 849-1 900), who climbed in
every district of the Alps, so that his list of high ascents is nearly,
though not quite (so he personally assured us, after his last
climb) equal in point of mere numbers to that of the present
writer. His articles were collected after his death by his friends
in a volume entitled Ueber Fels und Firn, that was given to the
world in 1901, though his excellent guide for mountaineers in
the Eastern Alps, the Hochtourist in den Ostalpeti (written by
him in conjunction with Herr H. Hess), first appeared in 1894
in 2 vols., and is now in its third edition (3 vols., 1903).
Next to him comes Emil Zsigmondy (1861-1885), ^ho was
mainly attracted by the Eastern Alps, in particular by the
Dolomites, though he was killed on the Meije in the Dauphine
Alps: his writings, too, were posthumously collected in 1889
under the title of Im Hochgebirge, while it is sad to relate that
his excellent booklet on the Dangers of the Alps was issued just

244 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

before his tragical end. Junior to both, but a remarkable
personality among the most daring climbers of his day, was
Robert Hans Schmitt (1870-1899), who, in his short career,
accomplished what had previously been considered as impos-
sibilities in the Dolomites.

Of Italian climbers who have passed away two deserve
mention as most successful and persevering explorers of the
Piedmontese Alps — Martino Baretti (i 843-1 905) and Luigi
Vaccarone (i 849-1 903). Both published only articles as to their
personal experiences and climbs. But the former issued many
tracts on Alpine geology, while the latter (being an archivist
by profession) paid much attention to the local mediaeval
history of the Western Alps. He also put forth a most interesting
monograph (188 1) on that strange tunnel pierced about 1480
beneath the Col de la Traversette, near Monte Viso, a work
of unequal value (1884) on the history of the Passes of the
Western Alps, and a most useful Ust of First Ascents in the
Western Alps (excluding however, the main Dauphine Alps),
that reached a third edition in 1890. Much of Signor
Vaccarone's practical knowledge of the Alps was incorporated
in his admirable guide-book (executed with the aid of two
friends), the Guida delle Alpi Occidentali (3 vols., 1889-1896),
which, despite its general title, treats almost exclusively of the
Italian slope of the Western Alps.

Here it may be convenient to say what we have to say as
to the numbers of the great national Alpine Clubs, premising
that the English Club is the only one that requires a high
climbing qualification for membership, the foreign societies being
content with the expression of an interest (sometimes very
Platonic) in the mountains. The Alpine Club increased from
298 members in 1871 to 361 in 1875, 444 i^ 1881, 509 in
1891, 611 in 1901, and 677 in 1908. The numbers of the chief
foreign Clubs at the end of 1907 were approximately the follow-
ing : the German and Austrian Alpine Club, about 78,500 ; the
Swiss Alpine Club, about 9700 ; the Italian Alpine Club, about
6500 ; and the French Alpine Club, about 5600.

Let us now describe and appreciate the new developments

> 1

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 245

of mountaineering that have taken place in the last thirty years
or so, that is, since the revival, though they did not follow it
immediately.

One of the first points that strikes an old stager like the
present writer is the rapid decline of the habit of making long
journeys in the High Alps, so as to include in the same
season a visit to several districts. This involved crossing many
passes, peaks being climbed on the way or during a short stay
at some favourite Alpine resort. But nowadays, though there
has very recently been a slight revival in this respect, most
mountaineers choose some ' centre ' for their season's work,
settle down there, and explore the high peaks in the im-
mediate neighbourhood, carefully avoiding passes as far as
may be possible. It is obvious that such a plan has great
conveniences — one gets good rooms at the selected hotel ;
one is comfortably installed for some time with plenty of
luggage; one enjoys the society of a set of congenial
spirits, who almost form a coterie; one has not, save rarely,
to sleep away from one's temporary home. But hotels well
situated for such a manner of spending one's holiday are not
too numerous, looked at solely as starting-points for high
climbs. Stopping, too, in one place tends to narrow a man's
interests, especially if he goes back again and again to the one
chosen spot, for though he may know it in great detail, he
loses the benefits of change of surroundings, not to say of
atmosphere. Such a 'centrist' reminds one of the man who
should fix himself in Florence or in Rome, and then plume
himself on his knowledge of Italy. The Alps are wide, and
each resort has its own particular charms, as well as draw-
backs. It seems a pity not to give to places other than
one's favourite haunt some little chance, even if one's wander-
ings confirm the belief that the chosen spot excels all others.
At any rate, a wanderer has seen the ' world,' and knows more
than his own village. The fashion of ' traversing ' peaks,
that is, going up one side and down the other, accounts in
part for the disfavour into which passes (except where they
offer special difficulties or dangers) have fallen. Yet the

246 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

crossing of a great pass is most interesting. The scenery
shifts from hour to hour, and that breaks, at least in part, the
monotony of tramping over long snow-fields. One gets a far
better idea of the topography of a region than one can obtain
by an hour's stay even on the most admirably situated summit ;
one feels that a real journey has been made from one place to
another, and not merely a day's excursion from home and
back. The present writer has tried both ' wandering ' and
' centre-dwelling,' and has no hesitation in preferring the
former, though occasionally a halt of a few days at a centre
forms an agreeable interlude and a rest from perpetual journey-
ing. However, tastes will always differ on this point. Here
we have only wished to lay stress on the certain fact that the
older climbers ' wandered,' while their younger successors settle
down at 'centres.' Yet, as hinted above, there are not wanting
signs that a few of the climbers of to-day have rediscovered
the delights of 'wandering,' and the fact that the difficulties
apprehended as to luggage and language are not so formidable
as they appear to be at first sight.

A second characteristic of modern mountaineering is the
strong preference shown for rock peaks and the almost
passionate dislike felt (after one has done one's ' duty peaks ')
for snow mountains. To some men rock clambering is the
one and only form of mountaineering. No matter about the
height, or position of the peak, provided it offers a good
scramble or an exciting climb. In some ways this tendency
is a 'throwback' to the greased pole enthusiasts at whom
Ruskin used to gibe. No one can maintain that the ascent
of a difficult snow peak is not quite as great a tax on a man's
energy and nerve as that of a rock needle. But on a rock
peak it is clear that certain difficulties of a snow ascent {e.g.
crevasses, step-cutting, etc.) are avoided, though rocks have
dangers as well as fascinations, peculiarly their own. The
amusing point is that rock men now look down disdainfully
on the few snow men who still venture to hold up their heads.
With them it is not a question of preference, but of exclusion.
No one, they urge, can be considered a mountaineer, unless he

II

f.

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 247

is a rock climber, pure and simple. From this point of view,
the scaling of the smallest rock tower is as enjoyable as is that
of the highest rock needle — all depends on the difficulties
encountered en route. This explains why of recent years so
much attention has been paid to the Dolomites in the Alps
and to the rock pinnacles around the English Lakes. Granting,
for the sake of argument, that the training for pure rock
climbing can be as well obtained in either region as in the
snowy Alps, the undoubted fact remains that what at once
distinguishes the Alps from these ranges is the fact that the
Alps are permanently snow-covered, that they possess glaciers,
and ice slopes, and the like. Hence nothing can possibly take
their place, and the mere rock climber deprives himself of at
least half the training of the all-round mountaineer. Of course,
a man may in general prefer rock to snow. That one can under-
stand, and that depends on his personal qualifications, for these
vary with the character of the climb. But in making the above
remarks we have been rather thinking of the man who only
climbs rocks and scoffs at snow, or, if compelled for his sins
to ascend a snow peak or to cross a snow pass, vents his dis-
satisfaction by complaining of ' that horrid snow grind ' !
Probably the younger generation of mountaineers are better
rock climbers than were their predecessors, but it is as cer-
tain, in the opinion of the present writer, that they are
distinctly inferior, generally speaking, to the older race of
mountaineers. They sought a route, if possible the best, though
that is rarely discovered on the occasion of a first ascent, up a
peak, while the newer generation looks deliberately for the most
difficult route, and has no rooted objection to a certain amount
of inevitable danger. But surely there is room for both types,
though, as is usually the case with ' wobblers,' those who
practise first one, then the other form of climbing, are regarded
with contempt both by the snow and by the rock men. Just
so the genuine ski man cannot stand the equally genuine
tobogganer, while both jeer at the poor wretch who prefers
his own feet to any form of artificial locomotion.

Closely connected with this frantic devotion to rock climbing

248 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

is the great shadow and blot on present-day mountaineering
— guideless dimbing in the High Alps by incompetent persons.
This, in the opinion of the present writer, who knows that he
does not stand alone in holding very strong views on this
matter, is the plague spot in Alpine matters at the present
time. Notice that we do not condemn guideless mountaineer-
ing in itself, but only when it is practised in the High Alps
(that is, roughly, above the snow-line, or in the case of difficult
ascents, without regard to the height of the peak) by incompetent
perso7is (not by those, always a select number, who, with
companions of the same stamp, are entitled to undertake
first-class expeditions). It is quite true, and sadly true, that
first-rate amateur clim.bers have perished in the Alps, for
there, as in the case of hunting, yachting, shooting, dangers
exist which cannot be avoided if the circumstances are favour-
able for them, while a mishap, an ' accident ' in the strict sense
of the term, is always possible — even the best athlete may
break his neck by falling down stairs, or slipping on a pavement,
or be run over by a railway train.

Now guideless climbing by competent men is no very new
thing. We have mentioned above the splendid feats of Messrs
Hudson and Kennedy's party on Mont Blanc as far back as
1855, while in 1870 Mr. Girdlestone devoted a whole book to the
subject, illustrating it by the thrilling recital of his own exciting
experiences between 1864 and 1869. Still later, the first guide-
less ascent of the Matterhorn, which took place in 1876 (the
present writer was at Zermatt that day) by Messrs. Cust, Cawood,
and Colgrove, was a wholly justifiable expedition. The three
members of the party had all considerable practical acquaintance
with the High Alps ; they took every precaution as to choosing
a day when weather, etc., were favourable ; they did not try to
make a ' record ' in any respect, whether as to time or anything
else. None of them had ever been up the peak before, so that
all the more credit is due to the success that crowned their
efforts. In 1878 Mr. Frederick Gardiner, and the brothers
Charles and Lawrence Pilkington, decided to carry matters
one step further, attacking peaks which had never been climbed

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 249

previously, and as to which therefore no practical information
could be obtained from printed sources. They succeeded
admirably in their emprise. Hence in 1879 they startled
the Alpine world by mounting the Meije (but thrice vanquished
previously), an undoubtedly first-class rock peak, while in 1881
they showed that they were many-sided by an ascent of the
Jungfrau from the Wengern Alp, admittedly one of the severest
and most trying ice climbs in the Alps. Like the party of
1876, they waited till all was favourable for their enterprises,
they took all possible precautions when on the way, they knew
each other well and so could reckon confidently on each
other in case of an emergency, and they had carefully
studied their intended route beforehand so as to be quite clear
on the subject.

It is impossible, of course, to fix the precise date at which
guideless climbing began to be abused. But no one can doubt
that one of the first signs of the change in men's views was the
tragic death of Emil Zsigmondy on the Meije in 1885. A
few days previously, he and his friends had successfully
accomplished the traverse of the ridge between the Grand Pic
and the lower Central Summit. Flushed with victory, they
attempted to force a new and still more difficult route up the
south face, and it was on this attempt that the misfortune
occurred. All three climbers (two only took part in both
climbs, the third man being different on each occasion) were
first-class men, but there are limits even to human skill and
human daring, and, in the opinion of the present writer, these
were overstepped on that occasion.

Without, however, entering upon the vain task of trying to
fix precisely the year when the bad side of guideless climbing
became prominent, let it suffice to say that for the last fifteen
or twenty years it has been coming more and more into the
foreground. Mountaineering has become popular, even
fashionable, after its temporary eclipse. The vast increase
in the number of published detailed descriptions of climbs,
special guide-books, large scale maps, discussion in public
prints has largely destroyed the veil of mystery that had long

250 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

half hidden the great peaks. It is thought that rock peaks
must offer safer climbing than snow peaks, with the probability
of step-cutting, finding one's way through an ice-fall, etc.
The expenses of travelling have been greatly reduced, and
that allows many men to indulge in climbing who had not
previously dreamt of this comparative luxury. There has been a
distinct decline (far more marked on the Continent than in the
case of English climbers) in the social status of those who tried
high ascents, and this led to a different kind of men embarking
upon difficult expeditions. Without much previous experience,
trying to cut down expenses as far as possible, never having
travelled with guides, ignorant of the etiquette that had grown
up in Club huts, which they could use gratis or for a small
fee, bound to make their climbs on certain days, as their
holiday was very short, they are inclined to run risks that
would have deterred the older generation ; for unless the
weather was extremely bad, it is absolutely necessary for
them to complete the climb in time to catch a train to bring
them home at the appointed hour. Add to all these drawbacks
the fact that many of the newer climbers (particularly in
Switzerland and Austria) are occupied all the week in seden-
tary pursuits (as clerks, students, workmen, etc.), and it will
be admitted that an entirely new phase of mountaineering has
been opened. Hence, beyond a doubt, the frightful increase
in the number of accidents in the High Alps, due for the
most part to sheer carelessness and to neglect to take the most
obvious precautions, these defects being in their turn the results
of the relative inexperience and ignorance of the young fellows
who at 07ice flew at the highest game, and often paid the penalty
of their foolishness.

Every climber ought to know, that on a high ascent much
depends on the condition of the peak that very day. The
Matterhorn can be a very easy ascent, but it can also be a very
terrible undertaking. Mont Blanc by the ordinary route from
Chamonix is a walk under favourable circumstances, but at times
it can beat the Matterhorn hollow as to danger and difficulty. The
Wetterhorn often changes from day to day, so that a party may

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 251

scamper up it one day, and, next day, the ascent may offer very
considerable difficulties, and still greater dangers. Hence the
idea that every peak can be classified irrevocably as ' very diffi-
cult,' ' difficult,' or ' easy,' is utterly absurd. The early guideless
climbers learnt this truth while they climbed with guides, and,
by watching their professional companions, could store up many
a useful hint (quite apart from any question of actual path-
finding) that was to be of service to them later on. But the
newer climbers, having never travelled with guides, lacked this
useful knowledge. Having heard that a certain peak was easy,
they held that it was always easy, and so could be attacked
safely. No or little consideration was paid to weather conditions,
ice conditions, snow conditions, rock conditions, or even to the
bodily condition of the climbers the day of their ascent. All
those who have climbed for a time know how one's body varies
in condition, often from day to day, and the extreme advantage
that a man who has trained himself that summer has over
another, perhaps in every way physically stronger, who has
come straight from his desk or his office, But the young
fellows we are thinking of have often only the Sunday free,
perhaps also a few hours on Saturday afternoon, but must be at
their post on the Monday morning, or it will know them no more.
Hence in summer one now regularly reads in the Monday
or Tuesday paper of the deaths that have occurred on the
mountains (by no means always on the high mountains) on the
preceding Sunday. Yearly the death toll is greater, and though,
as we pointed out above, there must always, in all pastimes, be
pure ' accidents ' which can be classed as inevitable, yet it must
be allowed that many of these Sunday accidents might very well
be avoided, with a little more care, a little more experience, a
little less rashness, a Uttle more thought for relatives, friends,
and even the outside world.

It is but a step from being told that one is 'as good as a
guide ' to the conclusion, why then take guides ? And here, in
the opinion of the present writer, the Swiss Alpine Club has,
with the best intentions, committed a grave mistake (no other
Alpine Club seems to have adopted the system). Since 1900

252 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

it permits amateurs (being members of the club) to sit for the
same guides' examinations as young professionals, and grants
to them, on passing, a certificate or 'Diploma,' signed by the
Central Committee, but not recognised by the Cantonal Govern-
ment. Professionals receive, on the result of the same examina-
tion, a ' Patent ' or ' Ucence ' from their Cantonal Government.
The result frequently (of course by no m.eans always) is that the
amateur, holding such a diploma, is not unnaturally tempted
to dispense with professional assistance, and not seldom comes
to great grief. The plan tickles the innocent vanity of a few
amateurs, but may well result in disaster, for it is the fixed
opinion of the present writer that it is impossible, save in a few
most exceptional cases (which prove the rule), that an amateur
can be as good and capable all round as a professional glacier
guide — mark the words 'all round,' for in certain respects the
amateur may surpass the professional, though falling below him
in other points, so that we must strike an average if we desire
to arrive at general conclusions.

Let us admit to the full the very real advantages that guide-
less climbing does possess. It without doubt develops the
sense of self-reliance, of independence, of true saving of money,
of pure enjoyment with a few congenial companions, of pleasure
in tracking out one's own way, of feeling perfectly free to go
where one will. Yet, on the other side, we have the indisputable
fact that amateurs cannot possibly have had the same continuous
bodily training as professionals, and this not merely because the
amateur spends a few weeks at the most in the mountains where
the professional spends his entire life. Quite apart from any
question of path-finding in fine weather (and the amateur will
almost always be better able to read a map or use a compass than
a professional guide), how can an amateur decide in the twinkling
of an eye as to the state of the snow, how can he possess the
inherited and accumulated weather wisdom of a guide, how can
he hope to vie with a professional in such tiring work as step-
cutting, carrying weights, and so on ? A guide, too, used to such
surprises in his ordinary life, will be less demoralised than an
amateur if a sudden mist comes on, or if the party be overtaken

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 253

by bad weather, or loses its way on trackless snow-fields or in
the mazes of a crevassed glacier. Amateurs, of course, vary, just
as much as do guides. But in these pages we are thinking of
really capable amateurs and good glacier guides. It is not
hard to find an amateur who under ordinary circumstances can
find his way up a well-known peak in fine weather nearly if not
quite as well as a guide. But the comparison is neither fair
nor complete unless we take into account bad weather, and
labour that makes a heavy demand on bodily strength, and such
like. In that case the superiority of the professional is very well
marked. One of the earUest and most successful of guideless
English climbers has often assured the present writer that two
of the greatest disadvantages of amateurs are, first, the tendency
to relax attention when the chief difficulties are over {e.g. cross-
ing an apparently uncrevassed glacier) and the excitement is
past ; and, secondly, the great tax on the physical energies of an
amateur of having to carry provisions, however they may be
reduced in bulk, whereas the guide is used to weight-carrying
from his boyhood. Our friend, too, who has travelled with some
of the best guides in the Alps, allowed to us unreservedly that,
though he and his friends could carry through a difficult climb
quite as well as many guides, they could not do so with the
professional finish and neatness that comes from a lifelong
training. It is simply the old question of the superiority, as a
general rule, of professionals or specialists in any department
over amateurs. Every general statement, of course, has its
exceptions, but these are so few in number that they impress
one only by their rarity and scarcity.

There are several other points which are often overlooked
when the merits of guideless mountaineering are discussed. As
is well known, the leading guide of a party is responsible before
the law for the safety of his party, and may be punished severely
if he has neglected his duties. But guideless climbers are
under no legal responsibility towards one another. Again, it is
frequently urged that the tariff of fees for guides is absurdly
high. Now it is true that the fees at first sight do seem to be
high. But it must be borne in mind that they refer to travellers

254 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

in general, not only to skilled climbers. Hence the amount
that would be adequate in the case of a traveller who has to
be helped very much would be absurd in the case of a more
practised climber, for the former not merely gives much more
work to his guide, but is also a source of greater danger by
reason of his inexperience. Besides, every one knows that, as a
rule, a good climber can make a special arrangement with a
guide. In all his thirty-four years of climbing the present
writer has very rarely paid the full tariff price for any high
expedition. Of course, if a guide is taken only for one or two
climbs, the fees will not be reduced proportionately as if he were
engaged for several weeks. After all, guiding is a profession,
or, more strictly, a ' by-profession,' exercised only in summer
(rarely in winter or at other times), and is the guide's means of
livelihood by which he mainly supports his family, unless he
has some other trade at which to work when not acting as guide.
He cannot, therefore, be expected to face unnecessary dangers
and perils, at the bidding of his employer for the time, who, on
his side, may not be cumbered by family cares and expenses. It
therefore seems very hard on a guide to accuse him of cowardice
or want of enterprise, for, after all said and done, mountaineering
is a pastime, not a gamble for one's life, and the limits of pru-
dence are well known, though not always observed.

A guideless climber, too, does not always remember that the
more guideless mountaineering spreads, the worse it is for the
professional guides, who are a picked lot of men, and exercise t
an honourable calling. By all means let the few really com- ;
petent amateurs, who can never be a very numerous body,
amuse themselves by emulating their professional rivals. But
let them beware of encouraging by their words or by their
writings incompetent men to follow their example. TJiere is the
great drawback of guideless mountaineering from the point of
view of the general public. Let the guideless climbers also be
more modest than is sometimes the case, and above all let them
refrain from throwing mud or casting contempt on professional
guides, whose bread they are taking out of their mouths, but
whom they expect to call in as rescuers should any mishap occur

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 255

to a guideless party. Quite recently an amateur climber per-
mitted himself to direct a most fiery attack against Swiss guides
in general. But in his paper he admitted that he had not made a
dozen climbs with guides, and then in most cases only with the
very best men, so that, as his critics at once pointed out, these
facts at once put him out of court when he sat in judgment
on average glacier guides. Another writer boasts loudly that
he and his friends, without guides, completed the exploration of
a certain district in the Alps. But when, on inquiry, it turns out
that this vaunt really refers to the scaling of a number of not
very high and rather unimportant rocky points, which had been
purposely disdained by previous explorers as beneath their
attention, one gets some idea of the childlike fashion in which
some guideless climbers blow their own trumpet.

Few English readers save those who devote special attention
to Alpine matters have any idea to what extremes the pursuit
of guideless mountaineering has actually been carried in the
Alps. A few examples, all dating from the last few years, may
help to open their eyes. In 1903 a party of eight young men
set out from Geneva (bearing with them, it is said, a ham
and several loaves of bread as provisions) to ascend Mont
Blanc. They seem to have been insufficiently equipped and
to have had little or no experience in climbing. By a sort of
miracle seven of them, though after very many hours' toil, really
did attain the hut on the Aiguille du GoAter. But a great storm
came upon them, they were struck by lightning, and were only
rescued, alive though wounded, several having remained sense-
less for hours, by the heroic efforts of a party of guides. The
storm was really a mere unfortunate detail, for the party were
in nowise fitted for the climb, even in the finest weather. In
1905 two young Swiss tradesmen (one holding the ' Diploma' of
the Swiss Alpine Club, as amateur guide, having gained it, so
it is stated, with great distinction) attempted the Jungfrau from
the Wengern Alp. They both perished on the way, how exactly
is not known, as only one body was found. A few days before
the same really difficult climb had been tried by two young
apprentices (one a blacksmith, the other a joiner) resident in

256 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Grindelwald. Both perished, another proof, if one was wanted,
that mere bodily strength and vigour are not sufficient equip-
ment for a high mountain ascent. In the autumn of 1906 it
was discovered that nothing had been heard of two young
Germans, who, alone, had started for the ascent of the Jung-
frau from the Roththal two months before. A strong search-
party from Lauterbrunnen was organised, which could discover
no trace of the two travellers, but did discover, very high
up, the body of a man, who turned out to be a baker from
Beckenried, who had attempted this expedition alone, armed
with an alpenstock. A short time ago a Swiss friend told the
present writer that, while walking about the Lower Eismeer at
Grindelwald, he spied two men working up the ice-fall (where
no one goes) that separates it from the Upper Eismeer. After
much shouting the two men were induced to return. They
proved to be two wandering apprentices, who were armed only
with an umbrella and a walking-stick respectively, and were
trying to make their way cheaply from Bern to the Vallais.
They stated that their intention was to climb the Jungfrau
(they were proceeding in quite a wrong direction), and, arrived
there, to take the railway (of course not yet constructed) down
on the other side. This case, like those of the baker and the
two Grindelwald apprentices, are cited here to show how much
harm guideless mountaineering can do by inducing unfit persons
to undertake climbs far beyond their capacity. One cannot, of
course, fix the blame on any one guideless party, but the way
in which some of the members of such parties brag about the
absurd easiness of this and that climb comes to the ears of
other ambitious young men, and results in disastrous conse-
quences.

Thus, as we started by remarking, guideless mountaineering
in the High Alps by incompetent perso7is is the black cloud on
the good cause at present. Unless this new current is forcibly
checked and diverted, much lasting harm will be done, and
mountaineering will be looked upon askance as was the case
for years after 1865. It is the duty of competent guideless
climbers (and such are to be found) to warn weaker men

MODERN MOUNTAINEERING 257

that while such a climb has great charms, it should not be
undertaken unless under favourable circumstances and by more
or less trained mountaineers. Otherwise the ambitious but
inexperienced novices will have to pay the natural penalty.

Forty odd years ago Leslie Stephen (one of the crack climbers
of his day) speaking officially as President of the Alpine Club,
and at a date previous to the Matterhorn accident of 1865, made
the following most wise remarks, the flavour of which has only
become more mellow with time, so that we commend them
heartily to the best attention of our readers : —

' In my opinion, if ever it becomes fashionable for English
travellers to attack the High Alps without guides and without due
experience, the era of bad accidents will begin. . . . According
to my experience, no traveller that I have ever seen would be
worthy to be ranked as even a second-rate guide. The difference
between professionals and amateurs, generally pretty well marked,
is wider in this than in almost any sport, and for the simple
reason that there is a greater difference in experience. The
guide has been practising during his whole life, the amateur
during a few vacations, of which the first was probably after the
time at which athletic sports are best learnt.'

CHAPTER XI

ALPINE GUIDES

IN the early days of January, 1129, a host of pilgrims was
waiting anxiously at the S. foot of the Great St. Bernard,
till the inclement weather allowed them to cross the pass in
the direction of their homes : it is the abbat of St. Trond,
near Liege, who tells us the sad tale. Avalanches poured
down from above, the snow blew into great drifts, some pilgrims
who ventured to start were suffocated. Their companions,
crowded together in the small village of St. Rhemy, were in deep
despair. Suddenly some local men offered to go on ahead
in order to beat down a path, so that the pilgrims with their
horses might follow in their steps. This offer, and the price
demanded, were gladly accepted, and the valiant men set forth,
though a fresh avalanche soon overwhelmed them, killing some,
maiming others, and so putting an end to the expedition.
For us in this chapter the interest lies in the description of
these men, the first Alpine guides of whom a record has come
down to us. We are told that they wrapped their heads in
felt as a protection against the cold, drew coarse mittens over
their hands, pulled on their high boots, of which the soles were
furnished with sharp iron spikes to prevent them from slipping
on the ice, and carried in their hands long poles wherewith to
sound for the path through the deep snow. The name given
to them is ' marones,' a word of uncertain derivation, that was
specially applied to the guides on the Great St. Bernard (there
it still survives in the form of ' maronnier,' the chief of the
men who sally forth to rescue passing travellers in winter) and
the Mont Cenis, though it is occasionally used with regard to

258

ALPINE GUIDES 259

other Alpine passes. They were equipped with all sorts of
articles such as are still more or less used in making high climbs,
though of course in this passage there is no reference to such
adventurous feats. ' Crampons ' or ' Steigeisen,' a sort of second
sole of iron or steel, furnished with sharp spikes (in 1129 the
iron spikes appear to have been fastened direct to the boot
soles) and placed under the leather sole of the boot, being
attached to the foot by straps, are often mentioned by later
writers, while both the lord of Villamont in 1588 on the
Rochemelon, and Arnod on the Col du Geant in 1689, speak
also of iron claws to be attached to the hands. Arnod, too,
had ' hachons ' with him, a sort of elementary ice-axe, no doubt,
while spectacles to protect the eyes from the glare of the sun
on snow are mentioned by Jacques Le Saige in 15 18, and by
Josias Simler in 1574. The last-named writer also speaks of
the use of the rope and of raquettes or snow-shoes, as well as
of the benefits of thick paper or parchment as a means of pro-
tecting the body against piercing cold. We have seen above
that in 1492 Antoine de Ville employed ladders wherewith to
scale the Mont Aiguille.

But of course in early days all these implements were only
used in the case of crossing in winter passes which in summer
are quite easy, and accessible to mules or horses. On the
Mont Cenis the ' marons ' were particularly skilled in bringing
down travellers from the pass to Lanslebourg on a sort of
toboggan or wooden sledge, this fashion of luging being called
' glisser a la ramasse.' They were capable, however, of better
things, as a Breton nobleman, the Seigneur de Villamont, tells us
in his amusing account of his ascent of the Rochemelon in 1588.
His two ' marons ' carried the provisions, they took care of their
employer when he became fatigued and half frozen with cold,
gave him wine to drink, tied crampons and iron claws to his feet
and hands, and apparently pushed him up by placing their
arms under his shoulders. Thanks mainly to them he reached
the summit of his peak, and rejoiced much in the wonderful
things he saw thence, so that 'he forgot all his past labours
and his soul was filled with an incredible joy.' Later, on his

26o THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

return to France, Villamont tobogganed down the other slope
of the Mont Cenis, perhaps looked after by the same two men
or 'marons.'

These two men of 1588 are the first real Alpine guides
who took, as far as we know, a traveller up a high peak, for
the companions of Antoine de Ville on the Mont Aiguille in
1492 were rather labourers charged to hew a way to the top
and to set up ladders, than guides properly so called.

Many years later we find that the men who acted as guides
on high ascents were generally chamois hunters, who feared
the upper regions less than other men. This was the case in
the ascents of the Scesaplana in 1742, of the Buet in 1770, and
of the Mont Velan in 1779, and in many later cases. On
other occasions we hear only of bold peasants, no hint
being given as to their profession, or again of shepherds
or of smugglers, who were very useful when the peak rose on
or near a frontier. These were the classes from which the
early mountain guides were taken. We should add crystal-
hunters in the case of the Chamonix men, and also the men
employed by Government map surveyors, who were naturally
chosen for their local knowledge, and could not fail to become
the guides of the future.

Of course the earliest professional guides are found at
Chamonix, for their powers found an opportunity for display
in the course of the attempts on and early ascents of Mont
Blanc. So we find in the first lists of Chamonix guides,
published before the end of the eighteenth century, the still
familiar names of Balmat, Cachat, Couttet, Tournier, Charlet,
Devouassoud, and so on. The Chamonix guides, too, were
the first to be organised into a special association, in 1821
or 1823 (the dates given vary). In 18 13 one of M. Maynard's
guides on the occasion of the first ascent of the Zermatt
Breithorn was a Couttet, and in 1830 Lord Minto, on the same
climb, had no fewer than nine Chamonix guides with him. The
Chamonix men long kept the pre-eminence they had won so
early, the latest to wander far from their native mountains,
as well as among them, being Auguste Balmat (1808-1862),

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ALPINE GUIDES 261

the guide and friend of Forbes and Mr. Wills ; the brothers
Jean Baptiste Croz (1828-1905) and Michel Croz (1830-
1865), the latter a victim of the great Matterhorn accident;
and Frangois Devouassoud (1831-1905), the life-long guide
of Mr. Douglas Freshfield, and the charming companion of the
present writer in 1867.

The guides on the early ascents of the Gross Glockner were
carpenters by trade, because they had to set up a cross on the top.
The Meyers on the Jungfrau and Finsteraarhorn in 18 11- 12 had
two Vallais chamois hunters, Joseph Bortis and Alois Volker (the
first known Vallais guides), as well as a Guttannen man, Arnold
Abbiihl, who later made himself a considerable name, and had
been picked up as the party passed his native village. In 181 2
the fourth man, Kaspar Huber, was in all probability a servant
at the Grimsel Hospice, as Abbiihl certainly was in 1828, when
he accompanied Hugi. The Hospice later became quite a nest
of good glacier guides, for the landlord was obliged to keep
many servants there (mostly, of course, from Meiringen, far
down the same valley of Hasle), and naturally they would
accompany to the glaciers any travellers who desired to visit
them. This Hasle school was particularly strong in the years
1840 to 1845. These men then came to the front as the guides
of Desor and his companions in the ranges round their head-
quarters on the Unteraar glacier. The boldest of them all was
Melchior Bannholzer, who with J. Jaun (also a Meiringen man)
vanquished (1844) for the first time both the Hasle Jungfrau and
the Rosenhorn peaks of the Wetterhorner. Jakob Leuthold
(who died quite young in 1843), Johann Wahren, and several
Abplanalps were also good Hasle guides of the time, while the
still surviving Melchior Anderegg (b. 1828), one of the most
famous of all guides, started life (in 1855) as a servant at the
Grimsel. Indeed, it is quite singular to notice how many great
peaks of the Bernese Oberland were first conquered by Hasle
and Vallais men.

Yet there were early guides at Grindelwald and at Lauter-
brunnen. The first Grindelwald guides we hear of are Peter
Baumann (1800-1853) and Ulrich Wittwer, who took a German

262 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

traveller in 1826 over what seems to be the Finsteraarjoch.
Baumann was apparently a leader of men, for it was he who
headed the six Grindelwald peasants (including Ulrich Wittwer,
Hildebrand Burgener, Christian Baumann, Peter Moser, and
Peter Roth) who climbed the Jungfrau from Grindelwald in
1828. Most of these men later became professional guides.
In the next generation at Grindelwald was Christian Bleuer,
who, with Peter Baumann and Hildebrand Burgener, is
mentioned in Murray from 1842 to 1865. He was with
Mr. Blackwell in 1850-4, and did a certain amount of climbing
in the early days. Later he seems to have organised parties,
acting as director, but having younger men to do the work
under him. Two of these under-studies became far more
famous than himself — Peter Bohren (1822-1882), surnamed
the 'Gletscherwolf'), and Christian Aimer (1826-1898), the
best guide who ever lived, who climbed from before 185 1 till
1897, never had but two accidents in his life, could boast
the most brilliant conceivable list of new and difficult ascents,
and yet died peacefully in his bed, surrounded by his family.
The present writer counts it a great privilege to have been
able to travel with Aimer for seventeen summers and three
winters, and to be in the closest relations of friendship
with his son and namesake, in whose house these lines are
written.

The Lauterbrunnen men come before the world as glacier
guides first in that grand year 1828, in connection with Hugi,
and Messrs. Brown and Slade's attempts on the Jungfrau from
the Roththal : the familiar names of Lauener, Bischofif, and
Gertsch occur then already. Some of the great Grindelwald
men were summoned over by Hugi to help the local climbers.
Most famous of all Lauterbrunnen guides was Ulrich Lauener
(1821-1900), who was the leader on the first ascent (1855) of
Monte Rosa, though it was so far away from his native valley.
The Oberland guides were first organised in 1856, and so at a
much later date than their Chamonix rivals.

Guides elsewhere developed on the whole later, though
J. Brantschen, of Zermatt, crossed the Schwarzberg Weissthor

ALPINE GUIDES 263

about 1825, and another Zermatt man, A. Damatter, was a senior
guide in 1845, when Mr. John Ball consulted him.

The Pontresina men were organised in 1861, and at later
dates the men of other regions who desired to become profes-
sional guides followed suit. But in the remoter and less visited
Alpine districts guides in the proper sense did not exist till quite
recently. As lately as 1876 the present writer engaged the best
chamois hunter at St. Christophe, in the Dauphine Alps, as his
local guide ; but, though he had already done one or two climbs
with travellers, it was not till after his conquest of the Meije in
1877 that Pierre Gaspard developed into a professional guide.

We have used the term ' professional guide ' more than once
above. It should always be borne in mind that it is meant to
distinguish those who guide for their livelihood from amateur
guides. Of course, guiding is not and cannot be a regular
profession, for as a rule it is exercised only in summer, though
of recent years the time for high climbs has been extended,
while Alpine guides have been engaged to explore extra-
European ranges. In the Alps, therefore, guiding is rather
a ' by-profession ' than a regular profession. No guide, practi-
cally speaking, is a guide and nothing else. That is the way
he spends part of his time, and earns most money. But save
in the rarest cases, guiding occupies him during only two or three
months of the year. Hence for the other nine months the
guides must do something, for it is a totally erroneous belief
that, save in summer, guides are entirely idle. It would be
truer to say that summer is their festival time, when they are
better fed, better lodged, better clothed than at other times
of the year, while, as against the undoubted dangers of their
calling, there are to be set certain cash advantages. All Alpine
guides are peasant proprietors in the first place. Hence during
the nine months or so when they are not guiding, they are
occupied with cultivating their land, taking care of their cattle,
felling wood for fuel, etc. In early summer the cows go up to
the high pastures, so that their owners are free, while hay is largely
made after the summer-climbing season is over. Many guides,
too, follow regular trades — some are carpenters, or blacksmiths,

264 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

or butchers, or keep small shops, or hire themselves out, in the
case of the poorer men, as day-labourers, haymakers, etc. Others
occupy official posts in their native valleys — so at Grindelwald
both the President of the Commune and its treasurer are actually
glacier guides. Thus it is not in accordance with facts to think
of the guides as forming a distinct class, sharply cut off from
other men of the valley, and exclusively devoted to one calling.
Guiding is simply the summer occupation of a certain number
of picked men in each Alpine valley. As cash circulates little
among Alpine peasants, save in the case of those who have to do
with foreign visitors, the guides are generally among the well-to-do
men in their respective districts. But like their betters, they
prefer not to be thought too well-to-do, in view of the taxes
that may be imposed upon them. Some years ago, in a certain
Alpine valley that shall be nameless, the local authorities were
at their wits' end to raise some more money for public purposes.
A shrewd member of the ruling body conceived the ingenious
idea of levying an extra income-tax on the guides of the region.
But as the guides in that valley are numerous, and so possess
considerable voting power, it was decided to levy this new tax
on certain guides only, selected because it was supposed that
they earned more than their fellows. Twelve men were picked
out, and a demand note was served on each to the effect that
he must declare what he expected to earn during the coming
summer, and would be taxed on the amount he stated. The
twelve held a meeting at once — it lasted a whole night — protest-
ing against this unequal treatment, and pointing out (what was
obvious) that it was impossible to estimate what their earnings
might be for the next summer, as they could not possibly tell be-
forehand what the weather conditions might be like. They finally
decided to return the demand notes not filled up, without any
statement or estimate of their possible professional income. But
this ingenious device of getting round such an obnoxious measure
was baflfled by the still more crafty communal authorities. They
resolved to tax each of the twelve on an estimated guide's income
of looo frcs. Every man of the twelve paid without demur the
annual tax of eight frcs., for, as one of them explained to the

ALPINE GUIDES 265

present writer, 'the authorities might very well tax us on a
higher amount (and of course our earnings are much more
than 1000 frcs. a year), so we think it better to pay and have
done with it, rather than run the risk of being assessed at a
higher sum.' Since then peace has reigned in the valley, and
both sides are quite satisfied with the result.

Another misapprehension as to guides should be carefully
guarded against. Enthusiastic writers, who sometimes know less
than they imagine, are inclined to regard as future guides all
the boys they see playing about an Alpine village. As a matter
of fact, perhaps one in ten of any such boys becomes a guide, at
any rate a glacier guide. That class does not include, far from
it, all the able-bodied young men of a given valley, but merely
a small proportion of them. The exact proportion depends on
many factors, but is never very large, for a glacier guide (and in
these pages we deal only with such) must possess certain quali-
ties that are by no means found in the case of all his comrades,
guides or non-guides. An instance, based on accurate figures will
show what the real facts are. At the end of 1906, in the valley
of Grindehvald, there were about eighty-three licensed guides
(glacierguides or ordinary guides) out of a male population of about
596 over 20 years of age, below which no man can be admitted
as a guide. Now notice that these 83 men were by no means
all glacier guides — shall we say that only perhaps 30 or 40 of
them had ever ascended the Wetterhorn or crossed the Strahl-
egg? — while some had practically retired through age, or in-
firmity, though unwilling to acknowledge the fact. Of these 596
men about 330 were over the age of 50, while 109 were between
20 and 32, 88 between 32 and 44, and 69 between 44 and 50 —
in all, 266 below 50 to 330 over 50. Naturally most guides are
below 50, though there are exceptions which will occur to any
one's mind.

Let us assume then as proved that only a comparatively small
number of the young men in any Alpine valley do become glacier
guides (of course the case is different as to the early guides, who
became such because they were chamois hunters, and acted as
guides before they received a licence). We are thus naturally

266 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

led to the question what is it that decides a young fellow to
become a mountain guide rather than a tradesman, an artisan,
a hotel servant, a waiter, a driver, a stableman, a cow-herd, or
a cheesemaker, all callings that are open to an Alpine youth,
and involve, as a rule, less perils than does that of a glacier
guide ?

Till the age of eighteen or twenty the boys and youths pass very
much the same kind of lives, whatever is to be their future calling.
As early as the age of three or four an Alpine boy is well used to
managing his small sledge down steep snow slopes in winter, even
if it be only around his father's house. They thus learn much
unconsciously as to the varying character of the snow at different
times, and, though summer snow is not quite the same as winter
snow, it is snow of a kind. They acquire, too, habits of dexterity
as to their legs, which may easily be injured if they do not
manage them properly, as well as of watchfulness as to critical
bits of the steep snow slope down which they love to career so
madly. It is surprising to find what small boys are taken in
winter by their fathers, or uncles, or elder brothers, or wander
off with chosen comrades, towards the high pastures that stretch
above their native village. For several winters running the
present writer met a small boy (first when he was only five years
old) climbing vrith his father up heavy snow slopes for some
2000 feet above his home, and then, in the afternoon, returning
merry and untired, on his sledge, or else dragging behind him a
young sapling for two hours or so. It is all play to the boys,
and so is delightful, while naturally the father is imitated, some-
times quite comically, at every stage. At the age of seven the
boy goes to school, but of course he goes there, in winter, on his
sledge. In the afternoon he is free, so that then he can toboggan,
or run about, or carry up coffee to his father at work among the
hills. Often, on a holiday, a band of quite small boys will
wander over hill and dale, or else make, with the entire school,
or its upper classes, a great excursion, say over the Wengern
Alp. At school the boy is taught gymnastics of a simple kind,
so that his small body gets well trained in many fashions. At
the age of ten he will generally be set to chop wood for the use

ALPINE GUIDES 267

of his father's household. Later, he will be sent out to look
after the sheep or goats, or to lead them up to the high pastures,
or to bring them down, the more valuable cows being under the
charge of the older men. As they advance in years these boys
hear about the ascents of the high peaks around their valley*
for few have not some relative who is not concerned in some
way with that source of money-getting. Very possibly they
will offer their services as path-finders on small excursions to
foreign travellers, for the summer is the school vacation, and so
they are free, save when wanted to do jobs at home. But it is
very rare for an Alpine boy (however strange it may seem to be
at first sight) to set foot on a glacier before he is twelve or four-
teen years of age. A lad aged twelve and a half years once made,
with his father, his uncle, and the writer, the ascent of one of the
peaks of the Wetterhorn, and was regarded with feelings of wild
envy by his school comrades. His father had been up the
Schreckhorn at the age of fourteen, and he was thought to be a
sort of infant prodigy. Schooling ends by sixteen. But the youth
begins to work (if he has not already begun to work) as a
labourer on his father's homestead, or to help his father bring
down hay in winter from distant barns, or to fell and then trans-
port the trees felled in autumn for use as fuel. Now there are
few forms of training more effectual and useful for a future guide
than bringing down heavy logs of wood on a big sledge in
winter. It is a very great strain on the legs ; it requires con-
siderable nerve and dexterity, so that bodily strength is by no
means all that is required ; it involves danger of death or mutila-
tion if the sledge is allowed to gain too great momentum, and
so pass over the body of the man sitting in front of it — every
winter there are accidents, arising from some mistake as to
managing these heavy sledges. Thus a lad must have some
presence of mind and be ready to alter his tactics as the heavy
weight behind him sways from side to side, or threatens to over-
whelm him.

Now, as we have said above, the training we have described
is much the same for all the healthy boys of an Alpine valley till
they have left school. Then comes the question of the future

268 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

career of each. Some naturally drift to one or other form of
industry, wherein their special personal tastes or likings or
qualifications will be of use to them. Much, too, depends, as
always in similar cases, on the father's occupation, for his boys
naturally incline towards the industry with which they have been
most familiar from their youth up. Some decide to become
guides, pass a rather easy literary and practical examination, and
obtain their certificates as full-fiedged guides, though this cannot
happen before they are twenty years of age and possess the neces-
sary bodily qualifications. It is odd, however, to find some men
acting as glacier guides who yet have been refused, at the same
age of twenty, as recruits for the Swiss army. A very slight
physical defect ensures rejection (fifty to fifty-five per cent, of
the young fellows available are refused annually), and yet that
man may become an excellent guide. Several cases of this kind
are well known to the present writer.

But all guides are not glacier guides. In fact, it is only
the minority of guides who even desire to become glacier guides.
The writer has never forgotten his very earliest experience on
this point. On his first walks in the Alps, he had been taken
round by a pleasant-spoken young fellow, who showed him all
the sights of the valley and was an agreeable companion. But
when the writer, fired by the desire of attempting a glacier
expedition, albeit only the passage of the Strahlegg, intimated
his intention to this young man, the ' guide ' declined politely but
firmly, on the ground that he never undertook such dangerous
expeditions ! Glacier guides then form a set apart, and are thus
picked men.

Now even if a newly fledged young guide desires to enter this
select class, it is not always easy for him to do so. He may
have more than the requisite physical strength, quite sufificient
mental outfit, a laudable ambition to do great things. But he
is given no chance of attaining his object and falls back into
the common ruck. Two circumstances that may fairly be called
accidental have a decisive influence on the early or future career
of an ambitious young guide. One is the question whether he
belongs to an ' hereditary guide family ' (for we are not thinking

ALPINE GUIDES 269

of the very early guides, but of the present generation, their
descendants), or has any 'guide connections,' such as relations
with hotel porters, who have the opportunity of recommending
one or another guide. If our young fellow has no such advan-
tages, his first steps will be very laborious and painful. One
man, who certainly in his day would have been reckoned in any
list of first-class guides, assured the present writer some years
ago, that, having no such ' family connections,' he had had a very
hard time at first, and, in order to learn his trade thoroughly
and the way about, had acted as porter (though a fully licensed
guide) for many long years. With him perseverance and
patience won the day at last. It is, of course, but natural
that fathers and uncles and elder brothers should prefer to
take with them the younger members of their own families,
and teach them (rather than outsiders) the tricks of the trade
which they themselves had learnt in their day. Yet, while
some outsiders do by constant and long-continued exertion
manage to gain admittance to this charmed circle of glacier
guides, other lads, who by birth belong to it, do not care to
make use of their advantages and opportunities. Tastes differ
here as elsewhere.

The other accidental circumstance to which we alluded above
is the question whether a young guide has the luck to get chosen
as the constant companion of some active amateur climber.
Quite apart from the prospect of a continuous engagement,
rain or shine, and so of continuous wages, the prospect that such
an engagement opens out to a young and ambitious guide may
be very brilliant. Not merely do two such comrades get to
know each other very thoroughly in storm and stress, as well as
in peace and sunshine, but the sphere of action of the young
guide is much widened. An amateur rarely, save for some
special reason, cares to make the same climb more than once.
Hence his own particular guide is transported from his native
valley, sees many other mountain districts, and gains much more
experience. Unless a local guide is taken (and even sometimes
when one is taken), our young guide will be much thrown on his
own resources : he has to climb mountains or cross passes that

270 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

he has never seen before, his intelligence is stimulated by the
absolute necessity of learning how to read maps, his ideas are
enlarged by visits to lands where his own language or dialect is
barely, if at all, understood, he learns to put up with the inevit-
able inconveniences of travel, his responsibility becomes heavier.
Of course, not every young man is quick or capable of availing
himself of the advantages that may accrue to him from such a
comradeship. But the present writer has two cases in his mind's
eye, in both of which the young fellow eagerly seized on the
opportunity offered and did his best, most successfully, to profit
by it. It is said that long engagements are no longer so common
as of old. More 's the pity from the point of view both of the
amateur and of the guide. Yet the great advantage of being able
to count year after year on the same employer is well recognised
by the guides themselves, who say sometimes, rather pitifully, or
it may be with a spice of malice, of a colleague, ' Oh, he has no
longer any Monsieur,' meaning that the man in question must
be content with chance engagements, which depend much on
the weather and on other accidents.

Now among glacier or high-mountain guides there are men
and men. Putting aside any accidental circumstances, the
difference largely consists in a difference between one man
and another. Whether the instincts of a first-class guide are
natural or are acquired is rather an idle question, for acquired
instincts, when the occasion arises to profit by them, are
practically equivalent to natural instincts. Among the qualities
that mark off a first-class guide from another guide are the gift
of path-finding (especially of retracing a route previously taken
in the opposite direction) ; the physical strength to undergo hard
bodily labour, such as long-continued step-cutting ; the power of
deciding, without hesitation, what is to be done in that exact
state of the weather or of the snow ; the faculty of preserving his
presence of mind if and when a crisis arises ; the strength of
will, regardless of any possible consequences in the future to
his professional reputation, though only among silly people, of
insisting on retreat if he deems it desirable. In drawing out
this list (which might be easily lengthened) the writer has con-

!/:i.l

ALPINE GUIDES 271

Crete cases in his mind's eye. In his opinion, the best first-
class guides ought to possess the qualities that are required of
capable non-commissioned officers in the army, and it is curious
to discover in many cases that the guide who has proved his
mettle is really a non-commissioned officer in the army of his
native land. If it be desired to select a single test by which
to judge of a man's guiding-power, we should be inclined to ask
that the candidates should be placed, each in command of a
party, on a crevassed glacier, known to them, but then en-
shrouded in a thick mist. Here again it is not so much the
actual finding the right way to take that counts, but rather the
power of keeping calm and composed when, as is always the
case, the rest of the party is demoralised by the sudden descent
of a mountain mist, blotting out all landmarks, and even the
tracks made on the way up, owing to the slight snow-fall which
often accompanies it at high altitudes. A good man, whatever
his private anxieties may be, will keep up the spirits of his party
by being cheery and encouraging, allowing no member to
indulge in useless lamentations or complaints, keeping all on the
move, looking after the husbanding of the provisions, in case of
later need, leading, laughing, hoping, helping his companions in
every way. If, under such circumstances, a guide gets his party
out of their predicament, there must be something else very
much against him, or the writer would unhesitatingly award
him a first-class certificate. But be it recollected that first-class
guides are very rare ; perhaps not twenty could be named
in the whole chain of the Alps at the present time, and very
likely the really good men are not those who enjoy a great
public reputation — it all depends among what kind of amateurs
that reputation is enjoyed.

The present writer has travelled so long with absolutely first-
class guides that he has perhaps an unduly high estimate of the
qualities that ought to be possessed by a man laying claim to be
reckoned in that category. To him, an old stager, the modern
race of younger guides seems to fall far below their predecessors.
They are perhaps better mannered, they may speak foreign
tongues with greater facility, they are dressed a Panglaise^ in

272 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

knickerbockers and Norfolk jackets, they wear a cock's feather
in their hats ci la tyrolienne, they can ski, they can skate — it
would be too much to say that they catinot guide, for a few
of them can certainly scramble up rock pinnacles. No doubt,
they have not had the opportunities enjoyed by their fore-
runners, and for that they cannot reasonably be blamed. Their
practical experience is therefore much more limited, and is
generally confined to the peaks and passes in the immediate
neighbourhood of their own valley. But to us they seem to
lack the nerve, the dash, the sterling qualities of the guides of
the good old days. Then the best men were like generals,
commanding a small force ; Jioiv the best men are more like
servants, simply obeying orders and carrying them out as they
can. But perhaps these criticisms are simply the groans of a
croaker, whose recollections of the ' good old days ' have, let us
say, become mellowed in the course of time. It may be so, but
the recollections are very pleasant, and as the writer does not
climb any longer, the matter has really but a sentimental interest.
Those who 'wandered' in the old days will most certainly
agree with him, and be as sure, as he is, that nothing could
surpass the enjoyment then gained, though, perhaps, their
predecessors would not be inclined to admit to the full that they
had not had the monopoly in their time. However, to each
generation its special joys and sorrows, among the mountains as
elsewhere. The youngsters of the present day, in their turn,
years hence it is to be hoped, will find their thoughts revert to
the earlier years of their climbing period. One may, of course,
be deceived, but it is just those first years, when one is in one's
prime, that one enjoys Alpine climbing most keenly, and that
the recollections of ascents then accomplished, and of the trusty
guides who then really led their party, are the freshest and the
most vivid. May present-day mountaineers be able to recall,
when the time comes for them to retire from active climbing, some-
thing dimly resembling those delightful experiences which their
predecessors from say 1870 to 1890 can recall ! If such is their
good fortune, they can better enter into the memories of one who
became a mountaineer in the dark days between 1865 and 1870.

CHAPTER XII

A year's round in the alps

FEW persons, save those lucky individuals who are actually
natives of the Alps, can have had such good fortune as
has been the privilege of the present writer in the matter of
prolonged and detailed acquaintance with that glorious moun-
tain-chain. Since 1865 no summer has passed by during which
he has not visited them, while he first saw them in their winter
garb in December, 1873 — January, 1874. Little by little his
summer sojourns amongst them lengthened at both ends. He
tarried longer in the autumn and arrived earlier in the summer,
so that finally it was hard to decide if his visits did not melt at
either end into winter or spring. Then in March, 1896, he
came to reside in the lovely Alpine valley of Grindelwald, where
these words are written. Since that date, over twelve years ago,
he has but rarely quitted them, and then only twice for more
than two or three weeks at a time. Hence few, not being natives
of the Alps, can know the mountains better at every season
of the year, though unluckily the keenest appreciation does not
carry with it the power of conveying that appreciation to others,
or even of expressing it in words. Yet some attempt must be
made to picture the Alps at varying seasons, so as to round
off our account, albeit in an imperfect fashion.

The vast majority of Alpine travellers see the Alps in summer
first, and in summer only. This is in part due to the fact that
holidays generally come in summer, and that the Alps are the
'play-ground of Europe.' Without doubt, summer in the Alps
has great advantages. The winter and spring snows have gone
or are going ; the meadows and pastures are gay with a mul-
s

274 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

titude of delightful flowers (till the scythe lays them low or
the cows eat them up), and so afford an admirable foreground
for the great rock and ice summits that tower above them ;
everywhere hotels are open ; the railways are in full working ;
the coolness of the Alpine air is deliciously refreshing to any one
who flies from the heat of the plains ; it is possible to sit in
long rapt admiration of the wonderful scenes that are unrolled
before one's eyes ; the sky, especially when one has attained
great heights, is all but black in its dark azure hue — in short
it would seem that no season could be more favourable for a
long stay among the Alps. Yet those who know them best are
most aware that the summer is not the real life of the Alps, but
simply a hectic and feverish interval of restlessness and move-
ment (not merely of tourists) that barely fills a quarter of the
year. As the summer advances the flowers disappear, for the
cattle mount higher and higher, and the snow melts more and
more, thus greatly facilitating mountain excursions, but at the
same time leaving the great peaks either rock masses of nearly
unrelieved black, or shining glassy ice, but without the delicate
veil of snow that adorns them at other times. The tourists
become more and more numerous, though those who know can
still find nooks unprofaned by the madding crowd, nooks that
the discoverers keep carefully to themselves, or reveal only to a
few like-minded friends. By the end of August the tender grass
and the flowers and most of the snow have all gone, and one
almost seems to see the skeleton of the mountains without
any flesh upon or around them. The effect is monotonous
and wearisome, as must be admitted by every traveller who has
seen the Alps in mid-June and at the end of August. Black or
blue-black is the true colour of the Alps in the height of
summer, and it is but slightly relieved by glimpses of blue and
green, both these hues tending to become paler and more
effaced as the weeks roll on.

At the end of August there is almost always a considerable
snow-fall in the Alps, which at once drives away the tourists who
imagine that winter has already set in. Those who are wise
keep up their courage amid the driving snow, and are all but

A YEAR'S ROUND IN THE ALPS 275

always plenteously rewarded. The autumn snow throws a
delicate lace veil of purest white over the naked bodies of the
great peaks, softening the blackness of the rocks and the dim,
uncanny shining of the ice upon them. It is true that the high
mountain pastures are not of such a heavenly green as in the
early summer. But, by way of compensation, the trees (other
than pines) and the brushwood on the hillsides assume most
wonderful russet-brown and reddish-gold tints which glow like
fires and illuminate even the ugliest slopes. There are few more
marvellous sights than the valley of the Liitschine between
Grindelwald and Interlaken in October. The cattle come
down amid general rejoicing, the count of cheese, butter, hay
is closed, and as October deepens into November and December
the Alps and their inhabitants prepare for the winter. Yet
often till late in November, despite morning rime, and
occasional snow flurries, the air is so mild and the sun so warm
that on a fine day it is a perfect delight to sit out or to make
excursions to some well-known hay hut on the upper pastures.
The fences that have guarded the hay meadows since early
summer are now thrown down, and one can wander at one's
will over them, without need of troubling about the growing
grass. Then, too, if living in a high Alpine valley, one reads,
with full appreciation of one's good fortune, about the ' sea of
clouds ' that broods, damp and choking, over the plains below,
while above one is revelling in the keen pure air and cloudless
sky and restful quiet after the departure of the noisy throngs.

Some readers may be inclined to object that such glories must
be of most exceptional occurrence. Certainly there are bad
autumns when it rains or snows with scarcely a break, but then
there are also summers of similar character. It is far better to
assume in both cases that normal weather conditions prevail, and
then the glories faintly indicated above will be the lot of the
enchanted visitor, who dares brave prejudice and visits the Alps
at a non-fashionable time of the year.

As autumn advances the dwellers in an Alpine valley resume
their ordinary avocations after the distractions of the summer.
Cow-herds, milkers, cheesemakers, guides, porters, drivers, rail-

2/6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

way men, and so on, throw aside the occupation which brings
grist to the mill. They become once more simple peasant
proprietors, busied with the care of their cows, now back from
the summer pastures, with receiving each his proper proportion
of cheese made on the mountain pastures in the summer, with
bringing down hay from the heights (profiting by an occasional
snow-storm), with felling the trees in the forests that will serve
as fuel during the winter or as materials for the repair of the
house or of the stable, or for the construction of new build-
ings. Every one is now absorbed by the duties of his real
life, and has cast off for nine months the artificial restraints that
have bound him during the summer. One may know well some
celebrated mountain guide, or a railway station-master, or the
lord of some cheese-hut, each amid their summer surroundings.
But it is not at first easy to recognise them, freed from knicker-
bockers and Norfolk jackets or uniforms or rough overalls, and
clad in the simple clothes, woven perchance in the valley itself,
that constitute their everyday attire for the greater part of the
year. Such rough but serviceable clothes are admirably adapted
for the hard work that is the daily portion of every able-bodied
man in an Alpine valley. They cease to think of foreign visitors,
and become athletic labourers. As winter comes on — but this is
rarely before the middle of December — these men bring down on
great sledges the late hay and the logs that have been prepared
in the autumn, or the fallen leaves of trees carefully collected
together to be used as stuffing for mattresses, or pine-cones for
the family fire. The dexterity requ ired to manage a heavy sledge
weighing (without its tackle) some forty pounds (this has had to be
carried on the man's shoulders in the early morning, while at the
same time he makes a track) is most remarkable, and practice is
absolutely necessary, as a moment's faltering or slip unwarily made
means death or serious mutilation. These tracks are, of course,
much improved by the descent of the heavily laden sledges on
their downward journey, and are most useful for foreign visitors,
though they do not always lead to the desired spot, but only to
the 'cache' where wood, now deep in snow, has been piled up in
autumn. The air is keener and crisper and colder than in

A YEAR'S ROUND IN THE ALPS 277

autumn, while, of course, the sun is no longer so high above the
horizon. But if there is no wind, even really intense cold is but
little felt, while a short climb up from the valley lands one in
the brightest of sunshine, warm and grateful, if of short duration,
though daily increasing in this respect. The soft snow and the
sparkling rime on the pines glitter brilliantly in radiant sun-
shine ; the sky above is of a wonderful blue, though less intense
and dark than in summer ; the whole effect, on a fine winter's
day, is one of light blue and silver. Walking is a joy (we pass
over the modern imported distractions of skiing, tobogganing,
and skating), and that even when (or because) it is necessary to
fight one's way through deep snow, reaching one's goal with a
proud feeling of having earned it by hard work, and with one's
body filled with a glow that often is perilously near fever-heat. Yet,
if winter joys in the Alps are great, there is one great drawback to
this season from the picturesque point of view. A uniform
dress of snow covers all the hills, great and small, so that the
great peaks are dwarfed and the small ones gain in apparent
stature. It becomes hard for an unpractised eye, or for a man
who does not know the region in summer, to say definitely that
such and such a peak is really several thousand feet higher
than another which seems to tower over it. Distances become
deceptive and heights a delusion and a snare. Yet to those who
are familiar with these scenes at other seasons than winter there
is a great charm in studying the dear old faces under their novel
aspect, and in painfully (in the literal sense of the word) forcing
one's way along a well-known path, marvelling that a little frozen
water, fallen from above, can so transform and beautify one's
favourite haunts. To the present writer winter is the most
delightful season in the Alps, coupled with early summer, if the
weather is fine.

Winter in an Alpine valley ends in March, though there is
often a foretaste of spring in February, while winter visitors know
too well how often a horrid thaw sets in regularly about New
Year's Day, just when they fondly imagine that they are in the
very heart of winter. By March and April the spring avalanches
begin to fall with power and might from the great peaks, which

278 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

have kept a dignified and majestic silence all through the winter.
This means the awakening of nature and of man, though neither
has been asleep in the winter, like the marmots. Preparations
must be made for sowing grass and potatoes and perhaps a few
cereals. The cows issue occasionally from their winter-quarters,
blinking at the unaccustomed light of day, and unsteady on their
half-numbed legs. The village school starts a new year with
Easter, and that means that the boys and girls of sixteen are
sent out into the world, after an education completed (in the
Protestant districts) by Confirmation at the hands of their be-
loved pastor. New life is visible everywhere. The crocuses
and later the gentians peep shyly through the snow, which has
kept the earth warm all the winter long ; the sun's rays gain
force and power, lingering lovingly on the valley and on the
village nestling in its hollow, not far above the stream ; a tender
greenness colours in an amazingly short space of time the fields,
next the gardens, first the lower pastures, then the higher pas-
tures, and creeps up steadily from day to day. The slope that
extends at the foot of the great peaks becomes once more
delicately beautiful and lovely ; the mountains still wrap them-
selves in fragments of their winter dress, that clings to their
flanks while not burying them beneath an impenetrable cloak.
In short, the Alpine world is green, and that is the colour of an
Alpine spring. But spring in the Alps as elsewhere is a variable
and fickle quantity, and brings with it many disappointments.

Such are the colours of the Alpine year — black and azure in
summer, russet-brown and reddish-gold in autumn, pale blue
and silver in winter, and tender green in spring — such is Nature's
palette in the Alps.

».^

A

»;

CHAPTER XIII

THE VARIOUS DIVISIONS AND GROUPS OF THE ALPS

IN the preceding pages (save in the two historical Chapters,
VII, and VIII.) we have treated of the Alps as a whole, con-
sidering first their principal physical characteristics, next their
inhabitants and their history, and finally the exploits of the
bold adventurers who have conquered their loftiest pinnacles.
We must now study the great chain more in detail, and dis-
cover the characteristic features which mark off one region from
another, our attention being largely devoted to the physical
aspect of the Alps, for the inhabitants of the several districts
have been spoken of above (Chapter vi.). Let it, however, never
be forgotten that all physical divisions of the Alps are purely
artificial, and are adopted simply for reasons of practical con-
venience ; the inhabitants of the Alps in every part of the chain
live, too, very much the same life, and closely resemble each
other, apart of course from questions of language and religion,
though the dwellers in the higher valleys are distinguished by
many special traits from those who have their home in less
rugged and more productive regions.

A. — The Main Divisions of the Alps

A few writers have proposed to divide the Alpine chain into two
great divisions only — the Western Alps and the Eastern Alps.
But though these two divisions are, roughly speaking, of about
the same extent, this plan is open to several objections, quite
apart from any geological considerations, of which no account is
taken in this work. We naturally associate the term ' Eastern

279

28o THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Alps ' with the Tyrol, but these writers use it in a wider sense
and include under it the eastern part of the Swiss Alps. Further,
the designation of ' Western Alps,' as employed by these writers,
takes in not merely the Swiss Alps, but all the French Alps, and
most of the Italian Alps, so that there is no clear line of distinc-
tion to be found, and that, after all, is the principal object of
creating any divisions at all. From a practical point of view
some account 77iiist be taken of the linguistic and political con-
ditions prevailing in the Alps, which this division tends to ignore
or confound. Other writers include in the ' Western Alps ' all,
or nearly all, the Swiss Alps, but this system is open to very
much the same kind of objections as the former.

The most generally recognised Divisions of the Alps are the
Western, the Central, and the Eastern Alps. Such a scheme
corresponds pretty well to the chief political and linguistic divi-
sions, though of course no plan for splitting up a continuous
chain can ever approach ideal perfection. This is best realised
as soon as we attempt to fix the limits between the divisions
selected.

As stated in Chapter i., the subject of this book is the Alpine
chain proper, as distinguished on the one side from the Apen-
nines, and on the other from the hills that extend towards the
borders of Hungary. Hence the Col de Tenda, at the one
extremity, and the Radstadter Tauern, at the other, mark off
the ' Alps ' in the sense in which we employ the name in these
pages. It is generally admitted that, within these limits, the
most practical course is to select other great Passes across the
main chain as the spots at which more minute divisions can best
be made. The following scheme is that which best approves
itself to the present writer, who has visited all parts of the Alps,
save the central Bernina and the Bergamasque Alps, as well as
the ranges of North and Central Tyrol and of Bavaria, and those
rising at the S.E. end of the chain.

I. The Western Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Simplon
Pass). — Our starting-point is naturally the Col de Tenda (6145
ft.). But where are we to fix the point of division between this

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 281

group and the Central Alps? There is no trouble at all about
the main watershed, which is well defined and clear till near the
borders of the Tyrol. Its direction, too, is, from a comparatively
short distance from the Col de Tenda, roughly north and south,
while it (also with one exception, in the Maritime Alps) forms
the actual frontier between France, on the W., and Italy, on the
E. The Little St. Bernard Pass seems to form, at first sight,
the best line of division, for, soon after, the main chain bends
gradually towards the E. through the range of Mont Blanc. But,
in common parlance, that range, containing, as it does, the loftiest
summit in the Alps, is usually reckoned as part of the Western
Alps. If we include it, however, in that division, we find that,
as for historical reasons its N.E. extremity is Swiss, Switzerland
(no longer France) and Italy henceforward are the political owners
of the chain. To add to our perplexities, we further discover
that if we fix the point of division at the Great St. Bernard Pass,
E. of the Mont Blanc chain, and not far from the spot at which
the main chain takes a decidedly eastern direction, we should be
obliged to cut asunder the loftiest and best-known range of the
Alps, the Pennine Alps. This clearly cannot be done without
blurring one of the relatively few facts as to the Alps of which
most people are aware, and such a course would be opposed to
the reasons of practical convenience, which are the sole excuse
for making any divisions at all. Hence we must place our point
of division further to the E. than the Great St. Bernard. The
best spot seems to be at the Simplon Pass (6592 ft.), which is
commonly held to mark the eastern extremity of the Pennine
Alps, and now boasts of a great international railway line that
burrows beneath it, while, just as from the N. extremity of the
range of Mont Blanc, Switzerland takes the place of France on
the non-Italian slope. It is true that from the N, end of the
Mont Blanc chain to the Simplon a great independent range,
generally called the Bernese Alps (though parts of it are in other
Swiss Cantons), faces us on the other side of the deep-cut Rhone
valley. But that valley very clearly separates the Bernese Alps
from the Pennine Alps, while the junction of the former range
with the main watershed of the Alps takes place much farther to

282 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the east than the Simplon Pass, and at the very head of the long
Rhone valley. Hence, all things considered, the Simplon forms
practically the most convenient line of division between the
Western and the Central Alps.

2. The Central Alps (from the Simplon to the Reschen
Scheideck Pass). — Starting from the Simplon and wandering
eastwards, which is the next great pass that may be adopted as
the point of division between the Central and the Eastern
Alps ? Three offer themselves at once to our consideration —
the Maloja (5935 ft.), the Reschen Scheideck (4902 ft., some-
times called inaccurately the Malserheide), and the Brenner
(4495 ft.). As regards the first, the main watershed from the
Simplon as far as that spot is perfectly distinct, while Switzer-
land and Italy are still the political rulers of the two slopes.
But the great practical objection to the adoption of the Maloja
is that it would throw the whole Engadine valley, as well as
its loftiest summits, the Bernina range, into the Eastern Alps.
Now the term ' Eastern Alps ' has to the average English
reader a flavour of the Tyrol, and the Lower Engadine alone
was ever Tyrolese historically. The Brenner, on the other
hand, forms an almost ideal line of division. For centuries
the main means of communication between Germany and Italy
and one of the best-marked depressions in the Alps, it cuts
across the great chain at a spot before this has split up into
several parallel ranges, as is the case farther east. But, to
the mind of the present writer, the Brenner has one fatal
defect, looked at from our point of view — it is situated to the
E. of most of the highest Tyrolese peaks, and its adoption
would force us to include in the Central Alps some of the most
important ranges of the Tyrol. Hence it seems to the present
writer that our choice must finally fall upon the Reschen
Scheideck, coupled with its natural continuation to the N.,
the Arlberg Pass (5912 ft.). It shares, indeed, with the Brenner
the disadvantage that the main watershed between it and the
Bernina Pass is ill-defined, and that a portion (in this case,
however, a very small portion) of the Tyrol is thus included

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 283

in the Central Alps. On the other hand, the Reschen
Scheideck lies W. of most of the great Tyrolese peaks, which
therefore very properly fall to the share of the Eastern Alps,
while the deep-cut upper valley (the Vintschgau) of the Adige
(the Eisack valley, down which runs the Brenner route, is its
tributary) on its southern slope is rightly described by Mr.
John Ball as ' one of the most remarkable features in the
orography of the Alps ' ; thus no part of Swiss territory comes
into the Eastern Alps. One drawback the Reschen Scheideck
certainly possesses from our point of view, but is not the
absolutely ideal a will-o'-the-wisp? If we follow the trough of
the Adige from Mais at the immediate S. foot of the pass,
we find that the mighty Ortler group, comprising the culminat-
ing points of the Tyrolese Alps, has most inconsiderately been
placed by Nature to the S. and W. of that great valley. But it is
obvious that the principal Tyrolese peaks ought not to be torn
asunder from their neighbours. Hence from Mais, at the S.
foot of the Reschen Scheideck, we must devise a purely artificial
line of division. We must draw our practical boundary first
to the head of the Valtelline or the upper Adda valley, either
over the old historical Umbrail Pass, or over that of the Stelvio,
which became well known only after it obtained its carriage
road in the early portion of the nineteenth century, while the
Umbrail had to wait for the first years of the twentieth before
it secured the same boon ; the choice of one pass or the other
has, however, little practical importance, for if the routes separate
at Mais, they rejoin high up on the other slope of the Stelvio.
From Tirano, near the head of the Valtelline, another carriage
road leads E. over the low and well-marked Aprica Pass (3875
ft.) to the Val Camonica, down which we follow the course of
the Oglio, which forms the Lake of Iseo, to near Brescia, which
is only some forty miles E. of Verona, where both the Reschen
Scheideck and the Brenner routes reach the Italian plain.

Thus, according to our division, the Central Alps are wholly
Swiss and Italian, save the N. slope of the Silvretta and
Rhatikon groups, as well as one small bit W. of the Reschen
Scheideck Pass, and another from that pass to Mais and so up

284 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

to the Stelvio, for on the Umbrail route Switzerland comes
down close to Mais.

3. The Eastern Alps (from the Reschen Scheideck to the
Radstadter Tauern). — The line of division to the W. has just
been discussed, the only doubtful point being the choice
between the Umbrail and the Stelvio, while that to the E.,
corresponding with the E. limit of the chain of the Alps in
general, was settled in Chapter i. Thus, according to our
scheme, the Eastern Alps are wholly Austrian (including the
Trentino on the S. slope) and Italian, with the sole exception
of the limestone hills of Bavaria, far away at the N.W. angle
of the region.

B. — The Principal Groups of the Alps

Such being the main lines that mark off, not merely the Alps
from other ranges, but the three great divisions within the
Alps themselves, we must now go on to consider the various
groups which can be distinguished inside each of the three
principal divisions. In selecting them we have been guided
by considerations similar to those which have prevailed with
us in fixing the limits between the great divisions, though it
appears best to speak of this second set of reasons in the course
of our study of the twenty groups that have approved them-
selves to us. The following bare list of twenty groups, and
their boundaries, may be convenient for purposes of reference: —

I— Western Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Simplon).

1. Maritime Alps (Col de Tenda to Col de I'Argentiere).

2. Cottian Alps (Col de I'Argentiere to the Mont

Cenis, and E. of the Col du Galibier).

3. Dauphin^ Alps (W. of the Col du Galibier as well

as of the Guisane and upper Durance valleys).

4. Grraian Alps (from the Mont Cenis to the Col de

la Seigne).

'1

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 285

5. Chain of Mont Blanc, or the Western Pennine Alps

(from the Col de la Seigne to the Col Ferret).

6. Central Pennine Alps (from the Col Ferret to the

St. Theodule Pass).

7. Eastern Pennine Alps (St. Theodule to the Simplon).

II.— Central Alps (from the Simplon to the Reschen
Scheideck Pass and the Stelvio).

8. Bernese Alps (from the Lake of Geneva to the Lake

of Lucerne, N. of the Rhone valley and of the
Furka Pass, and W. of the Reuss valley).

9. Lepontine Alps (from the Simplon to the Spliigen

Pass, S. of the Furka and Oberalp Passes).

10. The Range of the Todi (from the Oberalp Pass to

the Klausen Pass and the Lake of Walenstadt).

11. The Alps of North-East Switzerland (N. of the

Klausen Pass and the Lake of Walenstadt).

12. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the Reschen

Scheideck and the Stelvio, N. of the Valtelline
and E. of the Val Bregaglia and the Engadine).

13. Alhula Group (from the Spliigen to the Fliiela Pass

and the Maloja).

14. Silvretta and Rhatikon Group (from the Fliiela to

the Reschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass).

III.— Eastern Alps (from the Reschen Scheideck and the
Stelvio to the Radstadter Tauern).

15. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg, and Salzburg

(N. of the Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau,
and the Enns valley).

16. Ortler, Oetzthal, and Stubai Ranges (from the

Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio to the Brenner
Pass, E. and S. of the Inn valley, and N. of the
Tonale and Aprica Passes).

17. Lombard Alps (from the Lake of Como to near Tirano

in the Adige valley, S. of the Valtelline and of the
Tonale and Aprica Passes).

286 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

1 8. Central Tyrolese Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the

Radstadter Tauern, N. of the Pusterthal and the
upper Drave valley, and S. of the Pinzgau and the
Enns valley).

19. The Dolomites of South Tyrol (from the Brenner

route to the Monte Croce Pass, S. of the
Pusterthal).

20. South-Eastern Alps (E. of the Monte Croce Pass, and

S. of the upper Drave valley).

Now each of these twenty groups differs from the other,
like stars both in glory and in attractiveness. Each has its
own set of admirers, and perhaps of detractors also. Ideally
each should be visited in order to test its merits or drawbacks,
though not many Alpine travellers can attain this ideal. They
will prefer to limit their energies to a few groups which they
know well, perhaps here and there trying a new group by way
of change. Sometimes this flirting has good results, some-
times it simply confirms one's affection for old friends. Yet it
may happen that a man may long admire respectfully a certain
range on the horizon, before coming to know it better and then
really liking it. Another new friend may gain one's love at
once, albeit it may lack the severe grandeur of its neighbours,
while in another case the way to one's innermost heart may
be won slowly, though steadily. Rarely will any two Alpine
travellers be completely in agreement as to their favourite
ranges, though they may agree as to a some one range. Tastes
differ here, as in other departments of life. The present
writer knows English climbers who scorn the Tyrol, and others
who despise the Central Alps — in either case a nearer acquaint-
ance might alter their ideas and prejudices. Luckily the Alps
are wide enough to shelter men of very varying opinions as to
these matters of personal preference. So let us now go on
to point out the really characteristic features of our twenty
groups, laying stress in each case on its merits, and passing
lightly over its drawbacks.

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 287

I, — Western Alps

I. Maritime Alps. — Most people probably believe that the
Maritime Alps are the hills that rise just back of Mentone,
Nice, and Cannes. Herein they agree with the Romans of old,
to whom the ' Alpis Maritima ' was the track along the sea-coast
from Genoa to Marseilles, that attains its highest point at Turbie,
(1490 ft.), above Monte Carlo. Yet, if any of these hills be
mounted, or even if the Lerins Islands, opposite Cannes, be
visited, the horizon is seen to be bounded to the N. by a long line
of rocky and snowy summits. These are the true Maritime Alps,
and ever look down contemptuously on the tiny foot-hills which
often usurp their name. For once the title of a French
Department is clear and unmistakable, as that of the 'Alpes
Maritimes ' stretches from Nice and Cannes northwards nearly
to Barcelonnette in the Ubaye valley, for since i860, when the
county of Nice was given up by the House of Savoy to France,
the real Maritime Alps divide France and Italy, the older
boundaries of the Var and of Turbie being thus quite super-
seded. Besides, if we consider the question carefully, we see
that the foot-hills above the ' Littoral ' or the ' Cote d'Azur '
are in no sense 'Alps.' They are most certainly, stony and
dried up as they are, not ' Alps ' in the sense of rich and
fertile Alpine pastures. Still less are they ' Alps ' if we accept
the definition given in our very first chapter, that ' Alps ' are
mountains which are lofty enough to bear considerable masses
of perpetual snow. In this, the true sense, the Maritime Alps
rise far back of the sea-coast. They start from the Col de
Tenda (6145 ft.), that leads from Cuneo to Ventimiglia, and
are most conveniently limited on the N. by the Col de
TArgentiere (6545 ft.), which connects Cuneo with Barcelon-
nette. The Roja torrent descends direct from the Col de
Tenda to the sea, but for historical reasons, enumerated in
Chapter vi., is Italian throughout, save in its middle reach.
At the S. foot of the Col de Tenda and at the head-waters of
the Roja is the old Benedictine convent of San Dalmazzo di
Tenda, now a charming Italian summer-resort. On the French

288 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

slope of the chain the Alpine hamlet of St. Martin Vesubie
(formerly called St. Martin Lantosque) is the favourite resort
in summer of the inhabitants of the 'Littoral.' It is situated
near the head of the Vesubie valley, an affluent of the Var,
while an easy mule pass leads from it to the Baths of Valdieri,
on the Italian slope of the chain, and also much frequented in
the heats of summer. These Baths (some way distant from the
town of the same name) are at the head of the Gesso valley,
and form the centre of the king of Italy's hunting preserves,
so that many convenient mule paths have been constructed in
the neighbourhood, and even over to the glens on the other
slope, which in i860 were not ceded, for reasons of the chase,
to France. The Baths lie between two of the highest summits
of the Maritime Alps, the Punta dell' Argentera (10,794 ft., with
its prolongation, the Monte Stella, or Gelas di Lourousa,
10,696 ft.) and the Monte Matto (10,128 ft.). To the N.E. of
St. Martin Vesubie rise two other lofty peaks, the Cima dei
Gelas (10,286 ft.) and the Mont Clapier (9994 ft.), on the N.
slope of which are the principal glaciers of the region, small,
but crevassed, like their comrades elsewhere. All these are
wholly Italian. The Mont Tinibras (9948 ft.) is farther to
the N. and on the watershed and political frontier, but the
two great belvederes on the French side, the Mont Pelat
(10,017 ft.) and the Mont Monnier (9246 ft.), are wholly in
France, though the Besimauda (7887 ft.), near the Col de
Tenda, is wholly in Italy. Now the characteristic feature of the
Maritime Alps is the amazing panorama that is gained from
most of these peaks, for the eye lights on the level surface of
the Mediterranean, in one direction, and on Monte Viso, Mont
Blanc, Monte Rosa, and even the Matterhorn, in the other.
From no other snow-covered peaks in the Alps is the Middle Sea
visible, so that our range rejoices in an advantage which cannot
possibly be disputed by any of its rivals. By a quaint freak of
fortune the Maritimes were the first snow-covered peaks of the
Alps that ever met the gaze of the present writer. He was
spending the winter (1864-5) ^^ Cannes (then but little known),
and often made excursions to the Lerins Islands, from which

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 289

they are well seen, though at the time he thought more of local
history than of Alpine summits. But in 1S79 he became one
of the chief explorers of these neglected peaks. Envious mists
hid the sea when he stood on the Argentera and on the Monnier,
But these disappointments were made up for a short time later,
when, on two successive days, from the tops of the Gelas and
the Clapier, the Mediterranean lay unrolled before him and
his two Oberland guides, who had never seen it before. The
Esterels, the Lerins Islands, the Bay of La Napoule, the pro-
montory of Antibes were all identified, while on the far horizon
floated a dim vision of Corsica. Nor was this all, for, swimming
high above the misty Lombard plain, we saw many old friends
in the Alps, from the IMonte Viso right round to Monte Rosa,
including Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, the Weisshorn, etc., all
clearly standing out against the azure sky. We greeted, too, the
Argentera, the first ascent of which we had made a few days
previously, though very unexpectedly, as we were under the
erroneous impression that it had been visited previously. Then
we were enveloped in mist, but now we saw the whole ridge,
and rejoiced all the more in our conquest of the culminating
point of the region. Four years later the present writer, with
a friend, enjoyed an even more wonderful view of the sea from
the Besimauda, a low point (7887 ft.) to the N.E. of the Col de
Tenda, and so not strictly within the Maritime Alps, as we have
limited them in these pages. We started for the ascent from
Limone after lunch on Midsummer's Eve, a blazing hot day,
and were nearly cooked before we gained the gentian-starred
upper pastures. Then a cool north breeze met us, and also a
view that became finer and finer as we walked over them to the
summit. There our eyes were more than sated by the spectacle
of the whole Alpine chain from the Viso to the Monte della
Disgrazia (near the Engadine), forming a great circle that served
as a rampart to the Lombard plain. Peak after peak could easily
be identified (though Mont Blanc itself was invisible), while the
sight of the minor ridges and spurs breaking down into the plain
was an object-lesson in physical geography. Turning round,
we had a glimpse, through a break in the hills, of Genoa and
T

4

290 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

its gulf, glittering in the sun's rays. It was a scene never to
be forgotten. We descended to sleep that night at the old
secularised Carthusian convent of Pesio, embowered amid its
chestnuts. But, though the writer was beguiled into spending
the whole of the following September in that lovely spot, he
never ventured to disturb that ineffaceable impression by another
visit to the Besimauda. He was content to sit in the cloisters
(half a mile in extent, it is said), from a neighbouring chapel to
marvel at the daily vision of Monte Rosa, the Matterhorn, and
the Weisshorn, shining aloft, across the dim plain and the chest-
nuts nearer by, against a perfect sky. It is a thousand pities
that political jealousies between France and Italy render it
difficult for a traveller to explore the higher regions of the
Maritime Alps, though perhaps these mutual suspicions have now
calmed down a little.

2. Cottian Alps. — King Cottius would probably be more sur-
prised than anybody else to learn that his name has been given ""^
to one of the most considerable groups of the Alps, though
his kingdom, first independent, then annexed by Augustus, did
sit astride of the central portion of what are now called the
'Cottian Alps.' It is perhaps even more surprising that this
district of the Alps has never been named after Hannibal, for,
with the exceptions of the Little St. Bernard and the Col de la
Seigne, all the passes over which divers writers have taken him
cross the ridge of the Cottian Alps.

In our division of the Alpine chain the Cottian Alps stretch
from the Col de I'Argentiere on the S. to the Mont Cenis Pass
(6893 ft.), on the N. The Romans, however, gave the name
of 'Alpis Cottia' to neither of these passes, but to the Mont
Genevre that lies midway between them, which, as we have
tried to show in Chapter viii., is the great Historical Pass of
the Western Alps. The Argentiere, though certainly crossed
in Roman times, does not appear much in history till late in
the fourteenth century, and first became widely known when
Francis i. crossed it in 15 15. On the other hand, the Mont
Cenis came into prominence in Carolingian times, for it is not

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 291

known to have been crossed earlier than the middle of the
eighth century of our era, though a little later it became the
most fashionable pass in the Western Alps, and the usual route
from France to Italy.

A glance at the map shows that the Cottian Alps comprise a
very long section of the main ridge of the Alps. Hence its
several districts differ from each other in many ways. Perhaps
the best marked characteristic feature of the Cottians is that a
very considerable stretch has no permanent ice or snow upon it.
There are a few small glaciers at the head of the Ubaye valley
which is thrust up, on the French side of the chain, into the
chain nearly as far as Monte Viso, while that famous peak itself
(12,609 ft.), the monarch of the Cottians (first conquered in 1861
by two Englishmen), has one tiny glacier of its own, which,
however, can boast of being the true source of the Po. It is
only in the most northerly portion of the range that glaciers
of any size appear, and even then their extent is not really
very great. It is hard to explain this phenomenon, since the
Maritimes farther S. have glaciers, while the mighty Dauphine
Alps, strictly forming part of the Cottians, though more con-
veniently treated as a separate group, have very extensive snow-
fields, so that it is not the southern position of the Cottians
which explains this singularity. One result of this comparatively
snowless character of the range has been to make it, if not
'the cockpit of Europe' (like Belgium), certainly the chief
battlefield between France (the heir of the Dauphins) and the
House of Savoy, a prolonged struggle that we sketched above
in Chapter vii. Among the most interesting and remarkable
campaigns that were waged in these regions was that carried
out by Catinat in 1692. Almost every pass across the main
ridge can easily be forced by a strong band of soldiers, so
that well-nigh every pass has its own local military history.

Another feature of our range is that the higher summits are
inclined to rise close to, but just off the main divide. Thus
the Aiguille de Chambeyron (11,155 ft.), and Monte Viso, and
Rochebrune (10,906 ft.); though farther north this curious shy-
ness passes away, and we find the normal arrangement according

292 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

to which the higher summits rise on the actual watershed. Save
Monte Viso and its spurs, few peaks of the Cottians attain a
height of over ii,ooo ft., the average altitude being greater than
in the case of the Maritimes, but far inferior to that of the great
mass of the Dauphine Alps. Even so, the summits that rank
next after the Viso are collected together, so to speak, either in
the Chambeyron group, at the head of the Ubaye valley, or
in the Scolette and Ambin groups, to the S.W. of the Mont
Cenis. Probably it is the comparative isolation of Monte
Viso that gave rise to exaggerated ideas as to its height (really
but 12,609 ft.), and won for it the name of the 'visible peak,'
for it seems to tower up almost alone when seen from the
Piedmontese plain. Hence we are not astonished to find that
it is the only great Alpine peak which is noticed by the writers
of classical antiquity. The pines, as well as the wild boars,
both sung by Virgil, have long since disappeared, but it is
from the Viso that the infant Po still flows, as Chaucer told
us centuries ago :

' Of Saluces the centre,
And of Mount Vesulus in special,
Wher as the Poo out of a welle smal
Taketh his firste springyng and his sours.'

Of course the Po is the mightiest river of Piedmont, so that
its source attracted interest at a very early date. But the Po
is not the only river of importance that rises in our region. On
the Italian side we have the Stura, the Chisone, and the Dora
Riparia, all affluents of the Po, while on the French side are the
Durance itself (with its feeders, the Guil and the Ubaye), and
the Arc, two of the principal affluents of the Rhone, directly or
through the Isere (which rises in the Graians).

If we turn from the actual range itself to its inhabitants,
several notable features at once strike us. To this day, save
on the E. slope of a portion of its most southerly district, French
(in one dialect or the other) is the one tongue that is commonly
spoken in all parts of the Cottians, whether now politically
French or Itahan. This circumstance is due to the fact that

NTK VISO (COTTIAN ALPS) FROM THE NORTH EAST

MONTE

J

■I

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 293

the whole region was, till 17 13, part of Dauphine (see Chapter
VII.), and therefore naturally attracted towards the French form
of the Romance tongue. Of course, officially, Italian is used on
the slope, politically Italian, but the people themselves employ
a rough dialect that certainly resembles French rather than Pied-
montese. A further result of the same long connection with
Dauphine is the settlement in the Alpine valleys, S.W. of Turin,
of the 'Vaudois' or 'Waldensians.' It is most probable that this
people formed a colony from Dauphine which pressed over the
Alps, leaving on the other slope certain members, who still exist,
miserably, in the glens at the head of the Durance valley. It is
possible that the forebears of the Vaudois did not come direct
from Dauphine, but were certain Dauphinois who had settled
in Lombardy and were pressed backwards into the valleys now
occupied by the Vaudois. Their special doctrines were taken
from Peter Waldo, of Lyons, who put them forth about 11 77,
but, whatever may be thought of them, they disappeared in 1532
and 157 1, when the Calvinism of Geneva was formally adopted
in their place (Genevese ministers replacing the old ' barbes '
in 1630), so that nowadays the Vaudois are more strictly
Calvinist than are the Genevese themselves.

In the Cottians are also two of the earliest tunnels, pierced
beneath mountain passes. One was excavated between 1478
and 1480 beneath the Col de la Traversette, at the N. foot of
Monte Viso, in order that salt from Provence might be bartered
against rice and oil from Italy. The other is that properly called
the Frejus Tunnel (as it passes beneath the pass of that name),
and wrongly named the Mont Cenis Tunnel (as it is seventeen
miles to the W. of that pass), the first of the great tunnels
through the Alps, and opened for traffic in 1871.

3. Dauphin^ Alps. — Really and truly the Dauphine
Alps form part of the great Cottian range, but as the highest
portion (often called the Pelvoux group, from the peak that
was formerly the best known, though not its highest summit) is
curiously isolated, and is connected with the main mass of the
Cottians only by the isthmus of the Col du Lautaret (6808 ft.,

'"X

294 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

a paradise for botanists), they are usually considered to form a
district to themselves. For the sake of practical convenience
other minor ranges to the N., on or near the frontier of Dauphine
and Savoy (so the Aiguilles d'Arves, 11,529 ft., and the
Grandes Rousses, 11,395 f^.), are commonly joined with the
Pelvoux group under the general name of the ' Dauphine Alps '
— more properly these should be called the ' Central Dauphine
Alps,' in order to distinguish them from the Dauphine slope of
the main range of the Cottians, to the E., and from the lower
ranges of the Vercors, the Royannais, the Devoluy, etc., to the
W. and S.W. The exact limit between our group and the
Cottians is thus best placed at the Col du Galibier (8721 ft.),
over which runs the second highest carriage road in the Alps
(that over the Stelvio, 9055 ft., is rather higher), that leads
from St. Michel de Maurienne past the charmingly situated
hamlet of Valloire to the summit plain of the Col du Lautaret
itself.

Now the name ' Dauphine ' used, in former years, to call up the
ideas of dirty inns and countless stones. Within the last
twenty years the inns at all the spots likely to be most visited by
travellers have been vastly improved, and are run either by
Swiss landlords (for are not the Chamonix men who manage
them 'Swiss 'from the hotel point of view?) or by local men
who have become aware of the requirements of modern travellers,
and do their best to meet them. After all, the old inns were
not so terrible as depicted, or rather they were Hke those then
found everywhere in the French and Italian Alps, not being, by
any means, exceptional. But, as it happened, the early ex-
plorers were naturally drawn to the Pelvoux group, and im-
agined that the inns there were worse than anywhere else. The
present writer first visited the district in June, 1870, just
before the outbreak of the great war, and therefore had a pro-
longed experience of these unreformed inns. But even in the
seventies he found much worse inns in other parts of the
Alpine chain than in the Dauphine Alps, and, if pressed, could
still indicate certain hostelries elsewhere that have changed but
little since those days.

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 295

As to the stones, the accusation remains true, for their
number has increased, if anything, through the gradual wearing
away of the peaks, which discharge their rubbish into the
valleys below them. Yet the valleys which so shock travellers
in this part of the Alps are by no means the worst in the dis-
trict, for whoever desires to see what a real stony region is
should visit the Devoluy to the S.W. of the main group, and he
will come back a wiser and more cheerful man to the Veneon
valley, that forms the heart of the Dauphine Alps. Besides the
stones, the mountain slopes in the Alpine valleys of Dauphine
have a bad habit of ending in high cliffs, more or less steep,
often overhanging, so that long ago it was laid down by a high
authority (and the present writer has often proved the truth of
the remark) that in this region a new pass was not completed
till one had actually reached the stream in the valley.

In point of height the Dauphine Alps rank very high. Their
loftiest peak, the Pointe des Ecrins (conquered first by an
EngUsh party in 1864), attains 13,462 ft., so that it is the
highest summit that rises S. of the Mont Blanc chain. It is but
207 ft. lower than the Jungfrau and 6 ft. lower than the Monch,
though 76 ft. higher than the Gross Schreckhorn, to name three
peaks better known to travellers. Further, save a few peaks in
the Mont Blanc chain, the Pennines, and the Bernese Oberland,
it is without a rival in the Alps ; for Piz Bernina is rather
lower (13,304 ft.), and the Ortler, the culminating point of the
Eastern Alps, considerably lower (12,802 ft.). Then, too, the
Ecrins is not, like Monte Viso, an isolated summit, for it is
closely pursued by its neighbours the Meije (13,081 ft.), the Aile-
froide (12,989 ft.), and the Mont Pelvoux (12,973 ft-), so that
it was not till the early sixties that it was clearly distinguished
from its neighbours and assigned the proud position that had
always rightly belonged to it.

Another very marked feature of this district is the extra-
ordinary fashion in which the very numerous lateral ridges are
crowded together, so that, quite apart from the main horseshoe,
they are crowned by a great multitude of peaks. This squeez-
ing together as if by an hydraulic press has one great advantage

296 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

for climbers — these summits can mostly be reached in a day's
excursion from one's headquarters in the valley, thus avoiding
the necessity of sleeping out. Hence the desolate hamlet of
La Berarde (5702 ft.), situated in the centre of the great horse-
shoe formed by the main mass, and just where streams unite
from two of the principal Alpine glens, is one of the finest
mountaineering headquarters in the Alps — at any rate as
regards the number of peaks and passes to be visited thence.
But, thanks in great measure to the former fiery energy of the
present writer, virgin peaks around La Berarde have ceased to
exist, though in the seventies and even in the early eighties one
had simply to decide every morning in what direction one should
turn one's steps, for on every side unsealed peaks awaited their
conqueror. The writer's Grenoble friends used to complain to
him that the journey by diligence and on foot from Grenoble to
La Berarde (now rendered much easier) was so long that they
really could not undertake it. His answer was that he did not
consider the journey from Oxford to La Berarde too long.
Hence, when these friends really did arrive at La Berarde, they
found a forest of stone men on all the neighbouring summits,
built in the course of many happy summers by the writer and
his two faithful Oberland guides.

The views, too, offered by the higher summits of the region
are most magnificent, and that not merely towards IMonte Viso
and the Pennines, which are always visible in fine weather.
One of the most striking sights ever witnessed by the present
writer was from a high bivouac on the S. slope of the Pelvoux,
when, as daylight vanished, the eye ranged over many ridges,
the crest being in each case picked out by the light, though the
slope was enshrouded in darkness, these ridges fading away,
little by little, towards the plains of Provence, and presenting
a marvellous series of silhouettes.

To English readers the Dauphine Alps are especially interest-
ing because, while J. D. Forbes (the first great British mountain
explorer) crossed several of their glacier passes as far back as
1 841, almost all the other high summits and passes have been
first climbed by English mountaineers, if the writer (a New

I

I

THE MEIJK (DAUPHINE ALPS) FROM THE SOUTH

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 297

Yorker by birth) may be reckoned among English cHmbers.
The great exception was the Meije, which, in 1877, fell by a kind
of accident to a young Frenchman, who was a chamois hunter
rather than a peak hunter.

The Alpine historian, too, finds the Dauphine region very
attractive. In it rises that singular summit (some 36 miles
S. of Grenoble) of the Mont Aiguille (6880 ft.), which was
ascended as far back as 1492 by Antoine de Ville and his party,
aided by ladders, etc., as we have described in Chapter ix.
Five of the great glacier passes were known as early as 1673,
while the district was carefully mapped by Bourcet between
1749 and 1754, so that it was perhaps the first Alpine region to
be shown in detail (and astonishingly accurate detail, too) on a
map. Yet it did not attract much notice for long, really not
till after i860, though the French map surveyors and a French
botanist, Monsieur Victor Puiseux, visited the two loftiest points
of the Pelvoux in 1830 and 1848 respectively, while two chamois
hunters, during the chase, really attained in 1839 the Central
Aiguille d'Arves, their rather fantastic narrative being fully con-
firmed by the discovery near the top in 1876 of a coin left by
them, albeit the discoverer had then no knowledge of their
expedition.

Let us recall, too, the memory of Deodat de Gratet, Marquis
de Dolomieu (1750-1801), after whose famous geological journey
of 1789 the Dolomites of South Tyrol were named, though he
seems to have paid no attention to the peaks composed of
similar rock that rise in the Vercors, the Royannais, and the
Devoluy, all to the S.W. of Grenoble, while his own estate of
Dolomieu is some way N.W. of that city.

4. Graian Alps.— The Graian Alps resemble the Cottian
Alps in several respects. In both groups we find a long back-
bone running roughly from S. to N., while on the W. a kind
of rib or isthmus connects this central spine with a lofty
half-insulated group, called the Dauphine Alps in the case of
the Cottians and the Western Graians in that of the Graians.
But the Graians, unlike the Cottians, have a second curiously

298 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

I

similar isolated group, also connected with the main mass by
a kind of isthmus, and called the Eastern Graians. In short,
the Graians are more symmetrically built than the Cottians,
comprising what are practically three separate ranges, as against
the two of which the Cottians can boast.

The Central Graians, or the great backbone, like the Cottians,
runs in nearly, but not quite, a straight line, the bend towards
the N.E., noticeable in the N. portion of the Cottians, being, as it
were, balanced by the bend towards the N.W. that strikes the
eye at once on examining a map of the N. half of the Central
Graians. The Central Graians stretch from the Mont Cenis, on
the S., to the Little St. Bernard Pass (7179 ft.) — the 'Alpis
Graia' of the Romans — on the N., but it is convenient to
include in them the sort of no-man's-land that extends from the
Little St. Bernard northwards to the Col de la Seigne (8242 ft.);
this pass is the best S. limit of the chain of Mont Blanc, and
some concession must be made to the ' Monarch of the Alps.'
Now the bend towards the N.W. noted above takes place at the
Col du Carro (10,302 ft.), which is quite close to the points at
which the two isthmuses, connecting the main backbone with
the Western and the Eastern Graians, join or diverge from the
great central backbone, the Col du Mont Iseran (9085 ft.)
linking it with the Western Graians, while the Col de la Croix de
Nivolet (8665 ft.) performs the same function in the case of the
Eastern Graians. These unequal halves of the Central Graians
present in their turn two very striking parallelisms. In each
case three Alpine glens descend from them on the Italian slope,
those in the S. half being the three Valleys of Lanzo, that
debouch into the Piedmontese plain a little to the N. of Turin,
while the three in the N. half — the Val Savaranche, the Val de
Rhemes, and the Val Grisanche — are all tributaries of the Val
d'Aosta ; the Stura of Lanzo joins the Po, as does the Dora Baltea,
which receives the streams flowing from the three Aostan glens.
The other point of resemblance between the two halves of the
Central Graians is that, as often elsewhere in the Alps, the
Italian slope is far steeper and shorter than that on the other ||
side, so that the villages on the French slope are higher than

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 299

those on the other, while the Oreo, on the Italian side, curiously
balances, to use that phrase once again, the Arc, on the other
slope, though, of course, the Oreo is an affluent of the Po, and
the Arc of the Isere, and so ultimately of the Rhone.

There are yet other resemblances between the Cottians and
the Central Graians. We noticed when describing the former
that the main chain was crossed by an extraordinary number of
easy passes. The same phenomenon is to be observed in the
Central Graians, but with the difference that whereas in the
Cottians these passes were generally snowless, in the Central
Graians they are generally glacier passes, though of such an easy
character that in the last sixty years of the seventeenth century
no fewer than six are mentioned in maps or in documents.
Again, just as the two slopes of the Cottians are closely related
as to language, commerce, etc., because till 17 13 they both
formed part of the Dauphine, that is (since 1349), of France, so
the two slopes of the Central Graians are intimately connected
with each other, the language being more or less an identical
dialect, while till i860 they had both been ruled for many
centuries by the House of Savoy.

One more point of resemblance between the Cottians and
the Central Graians must be noticed, ere we quit the quaking
grounds of parallels. We have pointed out the tendency in the
Cottians for the principal peaks to rise close to but just off the
actual watershed. This tendency is much more marked in the
Central Graians. The Rochemelon (11,605 ft-) — the first
snov>7 peak in the Alps to be conquered, and that as far back
as 1358 — is not an instance of this, for, rising just beyond the
Mont Cenis, and a great pilgrimage resort in summer, its
summit, though on the watershed, is yet pohtically wholly in
Italy, this exception having been specially arranged in i860.
But, more to the N., we have successively the Pointe de Char-
bonel (12,336 ft.), the loftiest point of the Central Graians,
and the Albaron (12,015 ft.), both somewhat on the French
side of the great backbone, while the Ciamarella (12,061 ft.)
balances them on the Italian side of the great spine. But the
Bessanese (11,917 ft.) — the Matterhorn of the district — and

ST

300 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the three summits of the Levanna (11,943 ft.) all rise on the W
actual main crest. This is the rule more to the N., though fj^f
there are exceptions, such as the Bee de I'lnvergnan (11,838 ft.)
and the Tete du Rutor (11,438 ft.), both on the Italian side,
while the Grande Aiguille Rousse (11,424 ft.) is on the French
side of the main range. This singular aloofness on the part |
of great peaks from what one would naturally suppose to be
their proper position is noticeable in many other parts of the
Alps, though perhaps not quite to such a marked degree as in
the Central Graians.

In quitting the Central Graians let us just remark that the
famous Mont Iseran, once supposed to attain the height of
13,271 ft., is as regards position the actual E. peak (11,693 ft.)
of the Levanna, to which the height of the Grand Paradis has
been wrongly attributed. The peak now called the Signal du
Mont Iseran is only 10,634 ft. in height. This strange delusion
as to a summit that never existed save on paper was finally
cleared up in 1S59-1860 by the efforts of Messrs. W. Mathews
and J. J. Cowell, who took the obvious course (neglected,
however, by their predecessors) of actually exploring the site
of this supposed giant of the Alpine chain.

Let us now look for a moment at the two great wings of the
Central Graians, which, after all, contain the loftiest summits of
the region. That to the W. is best called the Western Graians^
and is wholly (since i860) in France, forming the division
between the two Savoyard provinces of the Maurienne (Arc valley)
and the Tarentaise (upper Isere valley). It culminates in the
fine peak of the Grande Casse (12,668 ft.), though even grander
is the second in height, the glorious Mont Pourri (12,428 ft.)
— so well seen from the Col du Bonhomme — while number
three, the Dent Parrachee (12,179 ^t.), is not far behind.
There are a number of other peaks, easy of access and command-
ing most wonderful panoramas, for the position of the Western ^
Graians between the Dauphine, the Pennine, and the Eastern
Graian Alps, naturally makes even its minor summits into ;J
belvederes of the first order. In the new edition (1898) of Mr.
John Ball's Western Alps, the present writer, recollecting at

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 301

every step the marvellous views which he had enjoyed from
point after point in the Western Graians, praised up peak after
peak, without considering that this monotonous series of recom-
mendations would amaze those who had not had his good
fortune. That this was so, but that the praise was really well
merited, is shown by the following friendly quiz by an English
climber, when speaking of the view from the Dent Parrachee :
' The peak afforded a grand view, though, indeed, in every descrip-
tion of these peaks this may be taken for granted ; in looking
through " Ball " we were at first amused to read of apparently each
peak that it commanded a marvellous panorama, or that the
panorama was one of the most splendid in the Graians, or some
similar phrase, but certainly the writer was justified.' Another
advantage of the Western Graians is the way in which the district
often recalls Switzerland, and affords a grateful relief to the eyes of
a traveller who, as is so often the case, has just come from the
belles horreurs of the Dauphine Alps. The glaciers spread
out widely without fear of taking up too much room — so those
of the Vanoise, of Gebroulaz, of the Grande Motte, and of
Gurra. This alone marks them off from the generally contorted
and half-ashamed little riven glaciers that are so common in
Dauphine. As the slopes below the Western Graian glaciers
are less arid and steep than in Dauphine, they aff"ord much
finer pastures for cattle {the Provencal sheep of Dauphine are
totally absent), while the herdsmen's huts are better, and the
herdsmen and cheesemakers themselves often Swiss, generally
from the Canton of Fribourg. Of late years the Alpine inns
in the Western Graians have greatly improved, and in this
respect the district is more Swiss-like than perhaps any other
in the Alps S. of Mont Blanc.

In the Eastern Graians (these are wholly within Italy) the
accommodation has also been improved, though not nearly to
so great a degree as farther west. The reason for this apparent
backwardness is not far to seek. The Eastern Graians, even
more than the Maritimes, are the hunting-grounds of the kings
of Italy, the game is very strictly preserved by a small army of
gamekeepers, and the excellent mule paths constructed to various

302 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

points can only be used by travellers when the king is not
hunting in the neighbourhood ; in short, it is not wished that
travellers should visit this region in any great numbers. When
one inquires why the kings of Italy are so intent on keeping
this magnificent district more or less to themselves, we find
that it is because it is the last refuge in the Alps of the Bouquetin
or Steinbock, {Capra ibex), a strange animal, which resembles
the chamois in many points, though zoologically quite distinct.
There are said to be about three hundred bouquetins still in the
Eastern Graians, which are often called the Mountains of Cogne,
as the village of that name is the natural headquarters both of
the king and of the comparatively few travellers who venture
to intrude into these carefully guarded glens. Of course the
chamois are preserved as well as the bouquetins, so that they
multiply to an extraordinary extent, while they are not at all
shy of the human beings who may check their steps in order
to watch these graceful animals (the bouquetin is a much more
clumsy-looking beast). On one occasion the writer counted
in a single herd of chamois up to seventy, and then gave it up,
as there were so many more. Possibly the culminating point
of the district, the Grand Paradis (13,324 ft.), takes its name
from being a sort of ' Gemsenfreiheit,' though this would not
apply to the other great peaks, the Grivola (13,022 ft.), the
Mont Herbetet (12,396 ft.), and the Tour du Grand St. Pierre
(12,113 ft). If one is an epicure, one may by a piece of good
fortune be able to taste the flesh of a bouquetin (like insipid
veal) as a curiosity, for the king often offers it to the hotel
guests, reserving the horns for himself. If any of our
readers be a votary of the chase, he will sympathise with
the feelings of wild despair with which one of the writer's
Oberland guides (a great Nimrod in his own land) gazed
helplessly, without a rifle, at the bouquetins and chamois comino-
forth from behind every stone in the glen where we were. That
night he dreamed that he pursued, on foot, one of these wonder-
ful bouquetins, caught him, vaulted on his back, and rode in
triumph to Grindelwald, seated on the back of this original kind
of steed. The writer himself, being an epicure and a hunter

i

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 303

only as regards mountain summits, prefers to recall the glorious
views to be had from the Cogne peaks towards the Pennines,
and especially, in the case of those on the E. edge of the dis-
trict, over the Piedmontese plain and in the direction of Turin.
But one of the most singular experiences in the Alps that ever
befell him was to spend several hours sliding about on the
frozen surface of the quaint little lake that forms the very
summit of the Roccia Viva (11,976 ft.). As the higher summits
are some way off, the low snow barrier that guards this tarn
effectually prevents any one from witnessing this ' winter sport '
that may be practised in the heart of summer. But a question
that does not seem to have yet been answered is how was this
lakelet (that never melts) originally formed in its present crater-
like hollow on the very tip of a lofty Alpine peak ?

5. Chain of Mont Blanc. — In our progress northwards from
Col de Tenda one huge range has loomed ever nearer and
nearer on the horizon, like a vast rampart of black rock and
glittering snow or ice, towering high up against the azure sky.
It is really only when seen from the S. and at some distance
away (best from the Western Graians or the more northerly
summits of the Dauphine Alps) that its true grandeur, majesty,
and immensity can be properly appreciated. Precipitous, of
gigantic height, streaming with crevassed glaciers, surpassing in
height everything else that is visible, the chain of Mont Blanc,
when seen from the S. on a glorious summer's day, is a sight
that can never be forgotten, and which, once seen, leaves the
keen desire to be thus privileged once again. On the map,
indeed, this great mass, limited by the Col de la Seigne and the
Col Ferret (831 1 ft.), does not take up much room, and in
point of mere length and breadth must yield to the Cottians
and the Graians. But when we come to study it more in detail
we find that in many respects it surpasses both these ranges.
True it is that in the matter of continuous height it is inferior
to the Eastern Pennines. Yet if we skim over it from the Mont
Tondu (10.486 ft.), at its S.W. extremity, to the Pointe d'Orny
(10,742 ft.), at its N.E. end, we discover that the main watershed

304 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

falls only in a few very rare cases below a level of ii,ooo
ft., an elevation superior to that of the loftiest summits in more
than one of our twenty mountain groups. Hence the glacier
passes across this great barrier are extremely high (the Col
de la Brenva, 14,217 ft., is only surpassed by four passes in the
Eastern Pennines), and in many cases are not at all easy, the
most frequented being that which pierces the very heart of the
chain, the Col du Geant (11,060 ft.), the early history of which
was sketched in Chapter ix. above.

It is this continuous great average elevation that has caused
this range to be usually named the ' chain ' of Mont Blanc,
rather than the 'range' of Mont Blanc, for the summits are
bound together as scarcely anywhere else in the Alps. Strictly
speaking, the district forms the 'Western Pennines,' a name
hardly ever used, though it explains the terms ' Central ' and
' Eastern Pennines,' commonly applied to those rising between
it and the Simplon : the name ' Pennines ' is, of course, taken
from the title ' Summus Penninus' given by the Romans to
the Great St. Bernard, the great pass of the entire region.

Yet, while the chain of Mont Blanc thus forms such a com-
plete unity in itself, it has the singular fate of at present belonging
to no fewer than three different nations, a very exceptional
case, though, of course, many ranges owe allegiance to two
sovereigns. As explained in detail in Chapter vii., this three-
fold division is due to a series of historical accidents. Originally
belonging in its entirety to the House of Savoy, that dynasty
lost the N.E. bit of the chain in 1475-6 to the Vallaisans (hence
to-day this is Swiss), while in i860 it ceded the whole Savoyard
slope with, it is held, the actual summit of Mont Blanc, to
France. This partition is, however, less artificial than it seems
to be at first sight, though it does not appear that the political
geography was made intentionally to follow the physical
tocography. It is at any rate remarkable that the waters which
flow from the range directly to the Rhone are politically Swiss,
while those that unite to form the Dora Baltea (an affluent of the
Po) are Itahan ; but by far the greatest amount swell the Arve,
and, to a shght extent, the Isere, and are French, as the Arve,

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 305

near Geneva, joins the Rhone, so that that great river receives
most of what is technically called the drainage of the range — a
curious connection between water and politics. The three
frontiers meet on the summit of the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft.),
which thus enjoys the distinction of being in three countries.

We have hitherto taken it for granted that our readers are
well aware that our chain contains the highest peak in the
Alps, INIont Blanc (15,782 ft.) itself. It is indeed the 'White
Mountain ' above all others, though that name is not known to
occur actually in a printed document earlier than 1742, despite
the strong probability that some such general term was applied
to it long before by the inhabitants of the valley of Chamonix at
its very foot. Yet though the name in its French form is always
recognised, it is a source of innocent amusement to speak of
the summit by its translated name, and to see how many of
the company will, without a little thought, grasp what mountain
is really meant. Though Mont Blanc is higher than Monte
Rosa (15,217 ft.), it is equally true that the whole range of Monte
Rosa is loftier than the chain of Mont Blanc. If we exclude
Mont Blanc and its immediate satellites from consideration, it
will be found that the summits of the range next in order of
elevation are the Grandes Jorasses (13,797 ft.) and the Aiguille
Verte (13,541 ft.). But in the case of Monte Rosa there are
quite a number of summits other than its ten or eleven peaks,
and taking in only the Eastern Pennines, which exceed or
approach 14,000 ft. One result of this fact is that Mont Blanc,
flanked by its immediate attendants, soars far higher into the
air than does Monte Rosa, and is thus far more imposing when
seen from a distance. In speaking of Mont Blanc one thinks
instinctively of the peak itself, whereas in the case of Monte
Rosa one sees a great wall crowned by a number of summits
differing but little in point of elevation. Both are superb sights
in their several ways, and tastes will always differ as to which
is really the most impressive. Another result is that the Alpine
history of Mont Blanc is far shorter than that of Monte Rosa,
its spurs being gained on the way to the culminating point,
while the lower peaks of Monte Rosa were climbed as ends in
u

•^q

3o6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

themselves. Of course, as we pointed out in Chapter ix., the
history of the attempts on Mont Blanc form the commencement
of the history of the true conquest of the Alps, for while the
loftiest tip of Mont Blanc was attained in 1786, that of Monte
Rosa awaited man's enterprise till 1855.

Next after the Monarch himself the most notable feature in
the chain is the huge and deeply sunk glaciers that flow down
from it in every direction. Though surpassed as to length by
at least three glaciers in the Bernese Oberland, and only able
to tie (nine and a quarter miles in length) with the Corner
glacier, at Zermatt, the great stream of ice that is named in
different portions of its course the Ceant, the Tacul, and the
Bois glaciers, and the ' Mer de Clace,' is one of the best-known
glaciers in the Alps. Was it not the glacier which was most
visited by the early visitors to Chamonix? Was it not over
this glacier that the long-lost route led to Courmayeur by the
Col du Geant? Was it not on this glacier that Forbes in 1842
and Tyndall in 1857 carried out their experiments as to the
causes of glacier motion and glacial phenomena in general,
observations that cast into the shade those made rather earlier
by Hugi, Agassiz, and Desor on the Unteraar glacier in the
Bernese Oberland ? The next longest glacier in the chain is the
beautiful one of Argentiere (six and a half miles). But why try to
cramp our admiration to mere size ? Few glaciers can attempt
to rival, simply from the picturesque point of view, the great
French streams of Tour and Bossons and Taconnaz and Bion-
nassay and Miage and Trelatete, or the Italian glaciers of Miage,
of Brouillard, of Fresnay, of Brenva (the most magnificent of all),
and of Triolet. Nor are the Swiss glaciers of Saleinaz and Orny
and Trient very far behind.

More characteristic of our chain are the strangely splintered
pinnacles of weathered protogine granite that bear the name of
'Aiguilles.' There are many summits in the range that bear
this name, so rarely found elsewhere. But '■the Chamonix
Aiguilles ' are seven rock needles which rise in the immediate
neighbourhood of Chamonix, five clustered together, one (the
Dru) a little way off, and another (the Geant) farther away, but

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 307

very visible from the Montenvers Hotel. It is not their height
which distinguishes them from other summits of the chain, for
with one exception they do not exceed 13,000 ft., while three
others hardly surpass 1 1,000 ft. But height is little in comparison
with grim aspect and apparent inaccessibility. One (the Midi,
12,609 ft.), the easiest of all, was climbed as far back as 1856.
But all the rest were not vanquished till very much later, and
in each case by valiant Englishmen, the triumphs in several
cases being amongst the finest exploits ever achieved in the
Alps. Here is the list in order of date — the Plan (12,051 ft.),
in 1871; the Blaitiere (11,549 ft.), in 1874; the Grand Dru
(12,320 ft.), in 1878; finally the Grands Charmoz (11,293 ft.),
the Grepon (11,447 ft.), and the Geant (13,170 ft.), in three
successive years, 1880, 1881, and 1882. The present writer
has not visited Chamonix since 1876, when the four last-named
Aiguilles were thought to be quite inaccessible, impossible,
unclimbable, etc., the ascent of the Blaitiere being then held
to mark the high-water-mark of modern climbing. He can
thus appreciate better than many the old feeling of respect
and awe that surrounded these gaunt pinnacles, though now-
adays that feeling seems to have vanished. As the lines
are being written it is announced that an extremely active
English climber, on one summer's day in 1906, cHmbed succes-
sively the Charmoz, the Grepon, and both summits of the
Blaitiere, the time taken from the Montenvers Hotel and
back being not quite sixteen and a half hours — halts of three
hours being included. How are the mighty fallen !

6. Central Pennine Alps. — At last ! some of our readers may
cry, at last ! we come to a region which we really know and love.
We do not like Chamonix and the Mont Blanc chain very much.
But now we come to the delightful summer haunts that abound
in that pearl of the Alps, the Swiss Canton of the Vallais. Other
readers of these pages, not unwilling to show that their know-
ledge is a little more extensive, may adopt for this district the
name of 'The Alpine Midlands,' as it lies between those two
great 'centres,' Chamonix and Zermatt. But the use of this

3o8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

name rather implies that the speaker beUeves in his heart of
hearts that there are really no other mountains (save perhaps
those of the Bernese Oberland) which are worth considering.
Now one object of this book is to show that, while the Pennines
(Western, Central, or Eastern) undoubtedly rank first in the
Alps, in point of elevation and extent of perpetual snow, there
are many other mountains well worth visiting, while, be it said
under one's breath, they are in some cases more beautiful and
charming than the much-vaunted Pennines.

However this may be, let us now study our new district. Its
W. limit is the Col Ferret, but only a few summits, the chief
being the Grand GoUiaz (10,630 ft.), are covered by everlasting
snow, till we reach the famous pass of the Great St. Bernard
(81 1 1 ft.). That pass, therefore, is the real W. limit of our
region, which extends thence to the St. Theodule Pass (10,899
ft.), that divides it from the Eastern Pennines. There is no
need to dwell on the history of the Great St. Bernard, so full of
interest in every way, beyond remarking that it is one of the oldest
passes known to have been utilised, the Roman name of 'Summus
Penninus,' or ' Mons Jovis,' having gradually been superseded by
that of the second founder of the Hospice, St. Bernard of Menthon,
who died about 1081. The good deeds of the Austin Canons
(who have served it perhaps from 1154, certainly from 12 15)
are renowned throughout the world, while their faithful dogs
are scarcely less famous. Contrary to what is often believed,
ecclesiastics do not always lag far behind the times. Witness
the energy of the present occupants of the Hospice, who in
1906 sent some of their members down to Martigny to be
instructed in the art of driving a motor-car, in which they
triumphantly returned to their mountain home, while, so it is
said — but the proof of the pudding will be in the eating — this
motor-car, furnished with runners, is to be sent out in winter
from the Hospice to search for travellers overtaken by storms.
Can anything more ' modern ' be imagined ?

A glance at a map of our district reveals at once two singular ^
features which mark it off from other regions. One is that from
quite near the Hospice eastwards the main ridge is not traversed

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 309

by a single non-glacier pass. It is true that the Col de Fenetre
(9141 ft.) is a very mild and anodyne kind of glacier pass, while
the Col de CoUon (10,270 ft.) and the St. Theodule itself (10,899
ft), despite its height, are not difficult from a modern standpoint.
These three passes have been known and traversed by local folk
for many centuries, certainly from the first half of the sixteenth
century, beyond which our records are very scanty. Hence
communications between the valley of Aosta and the Vallais
were by no means arduous, though, of course, the Great St.
Bernard, with its Hospice and Canons, offered special con-
veniences and advantages. The other notable feature of the
region is the odd arrangement of the valleys that are included
in it. On the S. slope there is but one considerable glen, that
of Valpelline, apart from the Val Tournanche, which belongs to
the Eastern Pennines as much as to the Central Pennines.
Now the Valpelline, though it can boast of fine scenery, has
never been a favourite with English travellers, so that its
exploration has been mainly carried out by Italians, despite the
fact that an Irishman, Mr. Adams-Reilly, in 1865-6, constructed
an excellent map of the glen, based on his personal observations.
The glen of St. Rhemy, leading up to the Great St. Bernard, is
a tributary of the Valpelline, while that of St. Barthelemy, though
not properly a tributary, is yet thrust up into the hills that rise
between the Valpelline and the Val Tournanche. Now if we
look at the N. slope of our districts we shall find things very
different in this matter of valleys. On that side, between the
Val d'Entremont and the Zermatt valley (reckoning neither in
our list) there are three or four glens of very considerable length
and size — the Val de Bagnes, the Val d'Herens (with its side
glens of Heremence, Arolla, and Ferpecle), the Val d'Anniviers
(with its tributary, the Val de Moiry), and the Turtmann valley.
The Nendaz valley stands to the Val de Bagnes and the Val
d'He'rens in somewhat the same relation as the Val St. Bar-
thelemy does to the Valpelline and the Val Tournanche — it is
thrust up into the mountains between them, but does not quite
attain the great divide, being, as it were, held back by its two
neighbours. The same remark may be made as to the Turt-

310 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

mann valley, with a change in the names of its opponents, but
this glen is the least important of all, for it contains no per-
manently inhabited village, and is occupied only by cows and
herdsmen during the summer months. On the other hand,
the valleys of Bagnes, of Kerens, and of Anniviers have most
interesting local histories, which those persons might well study
in winter who frequent them in summer. One of the quaintest
facts in this local history is the fashion in which different bits of
the same valley were held by different lords. One would natur-
ally imagine that each valley would in its entirety belong to one
feudal lord, even though other personages might own lands
therein. But it would almost be truer, in these as in other
cases, to assert the contrary. The oddest of all is perhaps the
Val de Bagnes. Originally this belonged to the House of Savoy,
which also held the Val d'Aosta and the Lower Vallais. But in
1 150 the Count gave the lower portion of the valley to the
Austin Canons of St. Maurice, in the Vallais, who held it till
1798. Again, in 1252, the upper half of the valley was made
over by Savoy to the lords of Quart, in the Val d'Aosta. Thus
the valley 'looked towards' two very different lords. As the
pastures at the head of the glen, those of Chermontane, are
remarkably fine, they were leased out by the lords of Quart (we
hear of such a lease as early as 1398), but the men of the lower
half, filled with jealousy at this occupation of rich meadows that
naturally ought to have belonged to them, often attacked the
Aostan herdsmen. The division between the two halves was
drawn at the bridge, below the Mauvoisin Hotel, for long known
(even as late as 1694) as the ' Pont de Quart,' though now com-
monly called the ' Pont de Mauvoisin.' Some writers hold,
however, that the true ' Pont de Quart ' was rather higher up
the valley, and led from the Chermontane huts to those of
Vingt-huit.

Yet these valleys on the N. slope of the watershed, so well
known to summer travellers to-day, were first explored in the
thirties and forties of the nineteenth century, when it was
thought quite a feat to visit Evolena, or Arolla (no inn then),
or Zinal : it was almost as necessary to write a book or article

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THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 311

as to such a daring expedition as it was in the case of the ascent
of Mont Blanc. Naturally, too, the high peaks of the region
received no attention, although the principal passes close beneath
were well known and even frequented. In the western portion
of the region, the Grand Combin (14,164 ft.) is the culminating
point, and shares with the Finsteraarhorn (14,026 ft.), in the
Bernese Oberland, the honour of being the only Alpine summit
over 14,000 ft. that rises outside the Mont Blanc chain and the
immediate neighbourhood of Zermatt : in the eastern portion of
the district, it is, of course, surpassed by the Weisshorn (14,804 ft.),
the Matterhorn (14,782 ft.), and the Dent Blanche (i4j3i8 ft.).
These three giants were conquered, in each case by EngHshmen,
in 1861, 1865, and 1862 respectively. But the Grand Combin
had only been vanquished in 1859, and then by a celebrated
French geologist, M. Ch. Sainte-Claire-Deville, though its
neighbour, the Mont Velan (12,353 ft.), had been overcome
as far back as 1779. The actual name ' Kumben ' occurs as
early as 1550 in Sebastian Miinster's Cosmographia Ufiiversalis,
where it seems to indicate the Col de Fenetre or the Col Ferret.
But, as far as the present writer is aware, the form ' Combin '
does not appear till 1804, in Ebel's Guide-book. On many
maps of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries we find indi-
cated in large letters, and placed between the Great St. Bernard
and the Monte Rosa group, a mysterious 'Mont Coupeline,'
which is certainly meant for our peak. Most of these maps
place it at the head of the Valpelline, so that the name is
probably an instance of 'conflation,' and formed by a fusion
of 'Valpelline,' 'Col' (indicating either the Col de CoUon or
the Col de Fenetre), and ' Combin.' Another form sometimes
found, ' Mont Colomb,' is probably intended to indicate the
Mont CoUon (11,956 ft.), that makes such a show from Arolla,
and those pastures were utilised already in 1442, while at
the end of the thirteenth century we hear of Arolla as the
haunt of bears and of chamois, which probably deterred any
cattle from coming up thither. Is there any need to speak of
modern Arolla, and Evolena, and Zinal? The writer can
recollect his first visit to Zinal in 1869, when there was but a

312 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

single inn, the Hotel Durand, which had four tiny bedrooms
only, all opening into a small central dining-room. In 1870
things were not much better, even at Evolena, while he will
never forget the horrors of a week snow-bound at Arolla in
1887. In 1870 Gruben, in the Turtmann valley, was delight-
fully simple. In all these cases comparatively few years had
elapsed since tourists had come to any of these spots in
sufficient numbers to make it desirable to cater for them
specially. But in 1887 Zinal was already spoilt, in the eyes of
the present writer, who obtained the last bed at his old inn,
found that inn pervaded by a school of young girls, and the
scene of noisy rejoicings. Let us, however, turn our thoughts
from such desecration of Alpine glens, and utter as our last words
a word of warning to our readers not to place any credence in
the absurd and wild theory, a veritable mare's nest, that the
Zinal valley was once peopled by Huns. Authentic history
shows that, like that of Herens, it was colonised from the
Vallais, the so-called Hunnish characteristics being simply due
to backwardness on the part of the inhabitants to enter upon
the march towards modern civilisation.

7. Eastern Pennine Alps. — The most easterly group in the
whole of the Western Alps is also that which boasts of the
greatest continuous elevation in the entire chain. Mont Blanc
itself, of course, surpasses any single peak in the Eastern
Pennines, but, as we pointed out above in Section 5, if we put
aside that mighty summit, with its immediate satellites, the
height of the Mont Blanc chain is far inferior to that of the
mass of Monte Rosa. Take any large scale map of our region,
which extends from the St. Theodule to the Simplon Pass
(6592 ft.), and study it with some attention. Very soon after
leaving the St. Theodule on our journey eastwards we come to
the Zermatt Breithorn, which attains an elevation of 13,685 ft.,
and is thus only 112 ft. lower than the Grandes Jorasses, the
loftiest summit in the chain of Mont Blanc next after the
Monarch and his attendants. From the Breithorn onwards
the height all but steadily increases through the Twins (Castor

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 313

is 13,879 ft., though Pollux is but 13,433 ft.) and the Lyskamm
(14,889 ft.) to the five highest peaks of Monte Rosa, the loftiest
of which, the Dufourspitze, is 15,217 ft., while the lowest is
still 14,965 ft. in altitude, the other five peaks of Monte Rosa
being merely snow-humps on or near the watershed. N. of
Monte Rosa there is a great fall to the wide opening over which
lead the various passes called 'Weissthor' or 'Porte Blanche,'
a most appropriate name for this great gate open towards Italy.
Near the Strahlhorn the main ridge bears away E. to rise soon
again in the range that bounds the valley of Saas on the E., and
which is comparatively quite low, for its culminating points are
the Weissmies, the Laquinhorn, and the Rossbodenhorn, which
are not able to rise respectively above 13,226 ft., 13,140 ft., and
13,128 ft., a great drop indeed from the height to which we have
become accustomed since leaving the St. Theodule. But from
the Strahlhorn northwards the range, though technically but a
lofty spur, rising between the valleys of Zermatt and of Saas,
is the true continuation of the mighty group of Monte Rosa.
From the Strahlhorn (13,751 ft.) we rise to the Rimpfischhorn
(13,790 ft.), descend slightly to the AUalinhorn (13,236 ft.),
rise again to the Alphubel (13,803 ft.), and so ever upwards to
the Taschhorn (14,758 ft.) and the Dom (14,942 ft.), the loftiest
summits of the Mischabel group. Then comes the great drop,
though a gradual one, through the Nadelhorn (14,220 ft.) and
the Ulrichshorn (12,891 ft.) to the Balfrin (12,474 ft.), which
makes such a show from Visp, where the traveller embarks in
the railway for Zermatt. The same phenomenon of exceeding
great continuous height is naturally very well marked in the case
of the passes that cross this huge range. From the Zermatt
Breithorn right round to the Balfrin, not a single pass falls
below 11,400 ft. Most considerably exceed the height, pro-
digious for a 'pass,' of 12,000 ft., while of the seven loftiest
passes (all over 14,000 ft.) in the Alps no fewer than six (see
our list in Appendix i.) are situated in our region — the highest
elsewhere, the Col de la Brenva (14,217 ft.), in the chain of
Mont Blanc, occupying but the fifth rank. The highest of all
the seven is, of course, the Silbersattel (14,732 ft., not many

314 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

peaks in the Alps are higher), between the two loftiest summits
of Monte Rosa, while the lowest is the Lysjoch, which merely
attains 14,033 ft. : all the seven are situated in the immediate
neighbourhood of Monte Rosa, save the Brenva (see above) '
and the Domjoch (14,062 ft.), which lies between the two
culminating summits of the Mischabel range.

Here we pause to clear up two points which are often mis- f;
understood. We sometimes read of enthusiastic dithyrambs 3
on the subject of the marvellous fehcity of the name ' Monte 9
Rosa,' whether explained with reference to the roseate tints
of dawn which first illumine its crest (but then what about
the still higher Mont Blanc or the ' White Mountain ' ?), or
to the symmetrical arrangement of its nine or ten summits, like
the petals of a rose (but a glance at a map will show that there
is a great break in this lovely circle). As a matter of fact, the
name simply comes from an old word of the Aostan dialect,
variously written ' reuse,' ' roisa,' ' roesa,' or ' ruise ' (the actual
form 'rosa' is used in 1574 by Simler, and in 1596 in a I
document relating to the glacier Rutor lake), which simply
means a 'glacier.' Thus, just as the St. Theodule Pass (see
Chapter iii.) is called ' The Glacier,' so the culminating point of
' The Glacier ' has to this day retained the name of ' Monte
Rosa,' otherwise ' The Glacier Mountain ' : it will be recollected
that the learned name for glaciers was formerly 'montes
glaciales.' It is a pity, in a way, to destroy a picturesque
legend, but it is rare to be able to kill a myth as effectually
as in this case.

The doubtful point is that the Dom (14,942 ft.) is 'the
highest mountain in Switzerland.' Now if by ' mountain ' we
mean an independent peak, rising more or less alone, this ^
statement is true. But if, as is more usually the case, we fl
understand by the term 'mountain' some one particular |
' summit,' then this statement is not even a half-truth, for the ' H
Dufourspitze of Monte Rosa (15,217 ft.) rises wholly within (i
Switzerland, being situated on a spur that projects west from r,
the main watershed and political frontier. Hence it was but l;
fitting that the loftiest Swiss peak should be christened (in 'i

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 315

1863) after General Dufour (i 787-1875), under whose superin-
tendence the remarkable map survey of Switzerland had been
carried out.

Now when tracing out in Chapter ix. the history of the early
exploration of Monte Rosa, we laid stress on the fact that the
first conquest of its highest summit was one of the first
exploits of the small band of Englishmen, who had seriously
taken up, though rather late in the day, the task of climbing
all the highest peaks of the Alps. Enghsh travellers began to
come to Zermatt in the early fifties, but it was not till the
Rifielberg inn (now called the Riffelhaus inn) was opened in
1S54 that expeditions in the range became easy, and therefore
that the first serious attack on Monte Rosa was made in 1854.
This first success led the way to others, and so it came to pass
that, with the exception of certain minor summits of Monte
Rosa (visited from 1801 to 1842) and of the peaks on either
side of the St. Theodule (the Theodulhorn and Little Matter-
horn climbed by Saussure in 1792, and the Breithorn by
Monsieur Maynard in 1813), all but three or four of the
higher peaks around Zermatt, whether in the Central or in
the Eastern Pennines, were first ascended by EngUshmen, and
that between the dates of 1854 and 1865. Here is the
list, which proves how strongly Englishmen were early
attracted to this valley, and explains why so many have since
loved it so heartily — 1854, Strahlhorn ; 1855, Monte Rosa;
1856, Allalinhorn ; 1858, Dom ; 1859, Rimpfischhorn ; i860,
Alphubel; 1861, Nord End of Monte Rosa, Weisshorn,
Lyskamm, and Castor; 1862, Taschhorn and Dent Blanche;
1863, Dent d'Herens and Balfrin; 1864, Zinal Rothhorn; and
1865, Ober Gabelhorn and — the Matterhorn. If, however,
we look at the higher points of the range on the other side of
the Saas valley, we find that English successes are limited to
the Laquinhorn in 1856 and the Portjengrat in 1871. Still,
English climbers need not complain, and Zermatt certainly
became the second home of the Alpine Club, if Chamonix (or
rather St. Gervais) was really its cradle.

Another very interesting point as to the Eastern Pennines

3i6 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

concerns the race to which its early inhabitants belonged.
It is well known that the Zermatt valley was originally inhabited
by a Romance-speaking race (hence the names ' Praborgne '
for Zermatt, and ' Chouson ' for St. Niklaus), which was later
(probably in the fifteenth century) overlaid and absorbed by
a Teutonic race, swarming down from the German-speaking
Upper Vallais — the name ' Pratoborno ' is found as late as
1450, while that of ' Matt ' occurs on the first Swiss map (that
of Konrad Tiirst), dated 1495-7. The full form 'Zermatt'
seems to occur first on Antoine Lambien's map of the Vallais
(1682), and occurs again in maps of 1712, 1756, 1760, and
1762, though it did not supersede other forms till after
Saussure's visit of 1789. Again, at the heads of several of
the valleys situated on the S. and E. of the range stretching
from the St. Theodule to the Monte Moro, there still exist
colonies of German-speaking folk, who, at some unknown date
(perhaps as early as the twelfth and thirteenth centuries), came
over (it would be interesting to know if they crossed the
St. Theodule or the Monte Moro) from their home in the
Vallais, for the dialect still spoken at Gressoney (Val de Lys),
Alagna (Val Sesia), and Macugnaga (Val Anzasca) is certainly
of Vallaisan origin. As a matter of fact, it is certain that about
1250 Macugnaga was really colonised from the Saas valley
while Italian-speaking folk emigrated between 1261 and 1291
from the lower Val Anzasca across the Monte Moro to
the Saas valley, though later, as in the case of the Zermatt
valley, they were absorbed by a Teutonic population coming
from the Upper Vallais. Hence, while the Anza stream is
still called the ' Visp,' the predecessors of the present Teutonic
names of Balen were ' Aballa ' ; of Almagell, ' Armenzello ' ; of
Saas itself, ' Soxa' or 'Sausa,' At one time it was currently be-
lieved that some of these names were of Arabic origin, and due
to the presence of a colony of Saracens, as shown by the ' Al '
in ' Allalin ' and ' Almagell.' The theory was tempting at first
sight, and greatly attracted the present writer. But when he
came to look into the authentic mediaeval documents relating
to the valley, he renounced it at once, as Italian influence was

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 317

plainly responsible for these names, though in every case it is
not now easy to detect it in the Teutonised form commonly
used.

Thus the Eastern Pennines rank among the most interesting
districts of the Alps, whether from the linguistic and racial
point of view, or from that of Alpine history, while it is certain
that no other Alpine region maintains so great a continuous
elevation. It appears hence that great height does not
necessarily mean a desolate region, but is compatible with
many ethnological and linguistic peculiarities that are a marked
feature in the region even at the present day.

II. — Central Alps

8. Bernese Alps. — What do we mean precisely by the term
'Bernese Oberland' or the 'Bernese Alps'? Most of our
readers will probably reply : ' Oh ! the valleys of Lauterbrunnen,
of Grindelwald, and of Hasle ' ; in other words, the region in
the neighbourhood of Interlaken, and of the Lakes of Thun
and of Brienz. No doubt this district is strictly the ' Ober-
land ' or ' Highlands ' of the canton of Berne. But historically
we must also include in the ' Bernese Oberland ' the valleys
of the Kander and of the Simme, and even the upper reach
of the valley of the Sarine or Saane, for, as shown in Chapter
VII., all these were gradually added to the wide domains of
the town of Berne. Topographically we must cast our net
even more widely, for the Dent de Morcles and the Grand
Muveran and the Diablerets, all looking towards the Lake of
Geneva, are, on the S.W., the natural continuation of the
'Bernese Oberland,' as, on the N.E., is the Uri Rothstock,
above the Lake of Lucerne, not to speak of the Titlis and the
Damm.astock districts. Thus, from a topographical point of
view, we include under the name of the ' Bernese Oberland '
the entire mountain country situated N. of the upper valley of the
Rhone and W. of that of the Reuss, and extending from the
shores of the Lake of Geneva to those of the Lake of Lucerne.
It is linked by the Furka Pass (7992 ft.) to the Lepontines,

3i8 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

which continue the Pennines and the main watershed of the
Alps towards the E. Thus the Bernese Oberland, in our
sense of the term, is a huge outHer of the principal chain, just
as are the Dauphine Alps, neither being on the great divide,
a circumstance that has greatly affected the course of their
history in either case (see Chapter vii.).

Hence the whole region is Swiss. But a moment's thought
will show parts of it belong to Cantons other than that of
Berne. The entire S. slope is, and always has been, Vallaisan.
Portions of the W. wing (that is, W. of the Gemmi) are in the
Cantons of Vaud and of Fribourg, though historically much
that is now in Vaud did actually belong (till 1798) to Berne by
virtue of its conquest (1475) of the district of Aigle from Savoy,
and of its division, with Fribourg, of the domains of the last
Count of the Gruyere (1555). Similarly in the case of the E.
wing (E. of the Grimsel Pass), we find that the Cantons of Uri,
and Unterwalden, and Lucerne all hold bits of the 'Bernese
Oberland,' and these bits have never at any time belonged
politically to Berne. Hence, strictly speaking, our general name
is inaccurate as regards both wings, and must be understood in
a topographical sense only.

Further, on examining a large-scale map, we find that many
lofty summits which rise within the limits of the 'narrow
Bernese Oberland' (from the Gemmi to the Grimsel) are
wholly or partially Vallaisan. Thus such typical Oberland
summits as the Aletschhorn (the second in elevation), the
Gross Nesthorn, and the Bietschhorn all rise on the Vallais side
of the watershed, while many other great Oberland peaks are
on that watershed itself, and so are shared between the Vallais
and Berne ; such are the Altels, the Balmhorn, the Lauter-
brunnen Breithorn, the Jungfrau, the Monch, the two Fiescher-
horner, even the Finsteraarhorn itself (the monarch of the
group), and the Oberaarhorn. What then is left that is strictly
Bernese in the ' Bernese Oberland ' ? A good deal, for the
Oberland is a very extensive region. Completely Bernese
are all the summits of the Bllimlisalp and Gspaltenhorn group,
as well as the Silberhorn and the Eiger, together with the

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 319

whole of the mighty Schreckhorn and Wetterhorn ranges, so
that an anxious inquirer may be soothed by finding that some
well-known ' Bernese Oberland ' peaks are really and truly
entitled to the epithet ' Bernese.' The key to this apparent
confusion is very simple, and is supplied by physical geography.
All the wholly Vallaisan peaks stand on the S. side of the great
watershed between the upper Rhone and the upper Aar valleys,
while all the wholly Bernese summits rise to the N. of that water-
shed, whether forming detached groups, or (like the Silberhorn
and the Eiger) being mere spurs or buttresses.

Therefore, to sum up, the term ' Bernese Oberland ' is wrong
historically and politically, but is in agreement with physical
geography, which makes a unity of the entire range from the
Lake of Geneva to that of Lucerne. The epithet ' Bernese '
is due to the predominance of Berne in the Swiss Confederation,
for its most dangerous rival in this matter, the Vallais, did not
enter the Confederation till 18 15, while Berne (though the town
did not, as we have seen in Chapter vii., gain its wide dominions
till much later) became a member as early as 1353.

Keeping still to questions of physical geography, let us note
that the Bernese Alps belong for the most part to the basin of
the Rhine, for the Aar, the typical river of the region and of
Switzerland in general, ' collects,' before joining the Rhine,
both the Sarine and the Reuss, so that its volume at the
junction is said to exceed considerably that of the Rhine at
this point in its course. On the other hand, all the streams
flowing down the S. slope of our range go to swell the Rhone,
and so ultimately reach the Mediterranean.

Again, as is usually the case in the Alps, the valleys (though
not the glaciers) on the S. slope of our range are short and
steep, indeed mere mountain glens, save the beautiful but
little-visited Lotschenthal. On the N. slope we have much
longer and more fertile valleys. The mere names of Plan
des lies and Les Plans de Frenieres, at one end, and of
Engelberg (oddly situated politically since 1816 in the
Obwalden half of Unterwalden, though physically within the
Nidwalden half), are sufficient proof of this statement. But if

320 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

any scoffer mocks, he has only to think of the upper bit of the
Sarine valley (with Saanen, Gsteig, and Lauenen), or of the
Simme valley (with Lenk and Zweisimmen), one long series
of magnificent pastures, or of the main Aar valley, with its
tributaries of the Kander (Kandersteg and Adelboden) and of
the Liitschine (Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen), besides the
main stream itself (with Meiringen and Gadmen).

Rivers and valleys naturally lead one's thoughts towards
glaciers. Of these the Bernese Alps have enough and to
spare, for does not Canton Berne rank third in Switzerland
with 1 11^ square miles of glaciers? It is also helped con-
siderably, as to our region, by Canton Vallais, which (including
of course the main chain S. of the Rhone valley) claims no
less than 375 square miles of ice (at present we need not
consider the 138^ square miles belonging to the Grisons), and
the total snow area in Switzerland is about yogf square miles.
Then, too, our region can boast of the three longest glaciers in
the Alps, the Great Aletsch (i6|- miles), the Unteraar and the
Fiescher (each 10 miles), these being all wholly within the
Vallais, the longest ' Bernese ' glaciers being the Gauli (8 J
miles), and the Lower Grindelwald (6} miles).

Glaciers, valleys, and rivers mean lakes, and what more
typical Alpine lakes, each in its way, can one find than those
of Thun, of Oeschinen, of Engstlen, of Lauenen, of Miirjelen,
of the Grimsel ?

And if we turn to the ' human interest ' of this portion of
the Alps, no one can complain of want of variety and of
movement. The secular struggle between the town of Berne,
ever bent on extending its rule, with the Vallais, distracted by
internal struggles, was largely waged on some of the higher
passes of our region, such as the Grimsel, the Lotschen, and
the Sanetsch. On a smaller scale, the Austin Canons of
Interlaken slowly but surely drew the Liitschine valleys into
their grasp, destined later to find that they had smoothed the
way for the ambitious town of Berne. The Benedictines of
Engelberg were more busied with spiritual work, but this had
to be coupled with the necessity of trying, though fruitlessly,

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 321

to stem the advance of the men of Uri who seized the best
pastures in their valley. In our region, too, though at its very
extremity, are Pilatus, with its famed lake (now dried up), and
its legend of the yearly reappearance of Pontius Pilate, who
had drowned himself in it. In another order of matters, the
Riitli, the meadow by the lake, on which the founders of Swiss
independence met, is in the 'Bernese Oberland,' though,
happily, the site (Tell's Chapel) of the fond invention of Tell's
leap is on the other side of the lake.

If we think of the exploration of the Alps rather than of
political matters, we find at the two ends of our region two of
the rare peaks that are known certainly to have been climbed in
the eighteenth century — the TitHs in i744) and the Dent de
Morcles in 1788. A little later we have the remarkable journeys
through the glaciers of the range carried out in 1811-12 by the
Meyer family, of Aarau, resulting in the opening up of many
glacier passes, as well as the conquest of two out of the three
highest summits, the Jungfrau (181 1) and the Finsteraarhorn
(18 1 2). Still later, we have the scientific observations on the
Unteraar glacier made by Hugi, by Desor, and by Agassiz, a
by-product of which was the conquest of several high peaks,
such as the Ewigschneehorn in 1841, the Gross Lauteraarhorn
in 1842, the Hasle Jungfrau and the Rosenhorn peaks of the
Wetterhorn in 1844-5 (^^^ highest, the Mittelhorn, was captured
by a Scotchman in 1845). In 1857 the first English ascent of
the Finsteraarhorn played an important part in the preparations
for the foundation of the Alpine Club, which actually came into
existence the following winter. A few days previous to the ascent
last named an Englishman had conquered the Klein Schreckhorn,
while in the following years his compatriots gathered up most of
the great Oberland peaks that had not yet felt the foot of man —
so the Eiger (1858), the Aletschhorn and the Bietschhorn (both
in 1859), the Bliimlisalphorn and the Oberaarhorn (both in i860),
the Gross Schreckhorn (1861), the Gross Fiescherhorn (1862),
the Balmhorn (1864), the Gross Nesthorn (1865), and the
Gspaltenhorn (1869), besides forcing several difficult glacier
passes, among which were the Eigerjoch (1859), the Jungfrau-

X

322 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

joch and the Fiescherjoch (both in 1862), the Wetterliicke and
the Roththalsattel (both in 1864).

The Bernese Alps have thus had considerable importance in
the history of the Alps, and have brought about mightier
changes and results than might have been expected in the case
of a range which stands aloof from the main watershed of the
great chain.

9. Lepontine Alps. — It was practically convenient to consider
the Bernese Alps (even though not on the great divide) immedi-
ately after the Pennines, for the two ranges face each other
across the upper Rhone valley. But we must now return to the
main watershed, and resume our tale with a notice of the most
westerly portion of the main Central Alps — the Lepontine Alps.
Now these Alps are held to extend from the Simplon to the
Spliigen Pass (6946 ft.), keeping S. of the Furka Pass (that
separates them from the Bernese Alps) and of the Oberalp Pass
(6719 ft., that distinguishes them from the range of the Todi).
Now the very name of ' Lepontines ' seems to exercise a curious
effect on the minds of many persons, as it appears to carry a
flavour of mystery about it, and this is even more the case if one
speaks of the ' Adula Alps,' the special appellation that is often
given to the E. half of the chain. Yet this feeling of not being
on speaking terms with the Lepontines has no real foundation,
for it often happens that, without suspecting it, these timorous
travellers actually visit the Lepontines, or gaze on them without
being aware of it. Practically no wanderer through the Alps has
never crossed over or burrowed beneath the St. Gotthard Pass
(6936 ft), which cuts the range into two halves. As his train
thunders down from Airolo to Bellinzona by that most amazing
and daring of all railway lines, he may find a minute free to con-
sult his Guide-book (let 77ie hope that it is a Murray and not a
Bddeker). It will inform him that the deep-cut valley down
which he is being whirled is called the ' Val Leventina,' and that
is but the modern form of the ' Vallis Lepontina.' Hence he is
really in the heart of the Lepontines, without realising it. Again,
if when he has ever studied the view towards the South, either

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 323

from the Belalp or from the Eggishorn, he cannot fail to have
noticed the long mountain-chain immediately in front of him,
and that is the Lepontines, though possibly he may pay less
attention to them than to the grander Pennines, to see which,
however, he must turn his eyes far to the right.

The Lepontines, therefore, are neither so inaccessible nor so
rarely to be seen as is not infrequently imagined. But the two
halves of the chain offer curious contrasts, and hence are some-
times considered as forming two sections of the Alps. In the W.
half, one of the first things that strikes one is that the tendency
so marked in the case of the Bernese Alps, that the glens on its
S. slope should be short and steep, is reproduced as regards the
N. slope of the Lepontines. Between the Simplon and the St.
Gotthard there is but a single glen of any extent on that slope,
and that glen is the only one which is permanently inhabited.
We allude to the valley of Binn, that opens just behind Fiesch,
and is so conspicuous from the Eggishorn. It is reached on
that side through a fine, rocky gorge which in winter is so
dangerous to traverse that a former priest of Binn ended his
letter with the melancholy signature, ' Vicar of Binn, near the
world ' {prope mundu7}i). Hence, though the Binn people have
always belonged to the Vallais, their relations with their Italian
neighbours are very close, whether in the way of legitimate
trading or of smuggling. Several easy passes lead over in that
direction, particularly the Albrun (7907 ft.), that as far back as
1425 was crossed by an army bent on the conquest of the Val
d'Ossola. For this reason, Binn, since a comfortable little inn
was opened there in 1883, is the natural headquarters of a
traveller in these parts, and all the neighbouring peaks can be
easily attained thence in the day. But if, with this exception,
the glens on the Swiss side of the western half of the Lepontines
are short and steep, the contrary is the case on the Italian slope.
There we have a deeply-cut and very well-marked valley, that is
watered by the Toce or Tosa, but assumes, after it has been
joined (a little above Domo d'Ossola) by the Doveria, flowing
from the Simplon Pass, the better known name of the Val
d'Ossola, the historical fortunes of which were set forth in

324 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

Chapter vii. above. Close to the head of this valley are the
magnificent Tosa Falls, with another good mountain inn, whence
the very easy glacier Gries Pass (8098 ft.) leads over to the
head of the Vallais, while the grassy pass of San Giacomo
(7573 ^^•) affords access to the Val Bedretto, that joins the St.
Gotthard route and the Val Leventina at Airolo. Two mountain
glens descend from the main range towards the Tosa, those of
Val Cairasca and of Val Devero, both now boasting of small
mountain hotels, built on the highest pastures in either valley,
those respectively of the Veglia and of the Devero Alps. The
monarch of this half of the chain is the Monte Leone (11,684
ft.), that rises just E. of the Simplon, and commands, as do
most summits of the chain, most wonderful views of the Bernese
Oberland peaks, while (unlike its neighbours) it can also boast
of a glorious prospect over the great Lombard lakes. These are
not seen from the Blindenhorn (11,103 ft.), or from the Basodino
(10,749 ft.), the general panorama from the former summit far
surpassing, in the writer's opinion, that to be obtained from
the latter, which most unjustly enjoys a wider reputation.

Another characteristic of the western half of the Lepontines is
the existence in the middle reach (specially known as the Val
Formazza or the Pommat valley) of the upper Tosa valley of a
most interesting Vallaisan colony, that preserves even to this
day its German dialect. It was established here before 1253, as
in that year an offshoot of this colony, at Bosco, was erected
into a separate parish, so that the original settlers probably
came from the Vallais (perhaps over the Gries Pass) in the early
thirteenth century, or possibly even earlier.

The mention of Bosco may serve as a transition to our notice
of the eastern half of the Lepontines, for Bosco is a hamlet at
the head of one of the glens that go to make up the Val Maggia, '
which, with its tributaries, and its neighbour, the Val Verzasca,
now bears the name of the ' Valleys of Locarno,' as they all con-
verge towards that town, that is built at the northernmost tip of
the Lago Maggiore. The hills therein, as well as those that sur-
round the Lakes of Lugano and of Como, are sometimes distin-
guished by the special name of the ' Lesser Lepontines.' Now

ja

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 325

these valleys, unlike that of the Tosa, are politically Swiss (since
15 1 2) as are their neighbours on the S. slope of the eastern half
of the Lepontines, the Val Leventina (permanently since 1440)
and the Val Blenio, with Bellinzona (held since 1500) — all these
valleys, with the Lugano region, forming since 1803 the Canton
of Ticino or Tessin, or ' Italian Switzerland ' — and the Val
Mesocco (won in 1480), that was of old included in the Raetian
Leagues, and so now forms part of the Canton of the Grisons.
Thus, while most of the S. slope of the western Lepontines is
Italian, the whole of that slope in the case of the eastern Lepon-
tines is Swiss. (Full details as to the exact causes of this curious
extension of Switzerland on the S. slope of the Alps will be found
in Chapters vi. and vii. above).

There is one point, however, in which the two halves of our
region resemble each other — the settlements of thirteenth
century German-speaking colonies from the Vallais, both in the
Val Formazza and around the sources of the Rhine, particularly
those of the main or Hinter branch of that famous river. This
curious preference of the Vallaisans for the Lepontine Alps does
not yet seem to have received its definitive explanation, though
the fact of the settlements is certain enough.

The remarkable feature as to these colonies at the sources of
the Rhine is that they now form islands in the midst of a
Romonsch-speaking population, for this ancient historical
tongue replaces in the eastern Lepontines the Vallaisan-German
of the western half, of course on the N. slope only, since on the
S. slope in both halves Italian is the prevalent language.

In the midst of the Lepontines is the celebrated St. Gotthard
Pass and group, which, it is well known, is one of the main
sources in the Alps whence great rivers flow down. Hence the
Lepontines, though able to claim but few and unimportant
tributaries of the Rhone, can claim the entire course of all three
branches of the Rhine, above Reichenau (some six miles W. of
Coire), as well as of the Tosa, and of the Ticino, besides the
actual sources, though not much more, of the Reuss. This
extraordinary wealth of water accounts for the odd fact (already
pointed out in Chapter i.), that the lower peak (9922 ft.) of

326 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the Wyttenwasserstock (a little W. of the St. Gotthard Pass)
(like the Pizzo Lunghino, near the Maloja) sends streams to
three seas, in this case to the Mediterranean (through the
Rhone), the Hadriatic (the Tosa and the Ticino join the Po) and
the North Sea (through the Reuss and the Rhine).

As will be seen from our list of Peaks and Passes printed in
Appendix i., many of the highest summits of the Lepontines
are in their eastern half, though the loftiest, the Rheinwald-
horn (11,149 ft-)' must bow to the Monte Leone (11,684 ft.)
in the western half. These summits of the eastern half were,
with those of the Range of the Todi, just opposite, the scene
of the long - continued explorations in the late eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries, made by the Benedictine monk
of Disentis, Father Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833), whom we
commemorated, as one of the early pioneers of Alpine climbing,
in Chapter ix. above. Nor should we omit the notable fact
that the Upper or Grey League (Ober or Grauer Bund) of the
Raetian Confederation included practically the whole of the
eastern half of the Lepontines, as has been duly set forth in
Chapter vii. The extension of this League over the S. slope of
the Alpine chain was greatly facilitated by the easy passes which
lead over thither from the eastern half of the Lepontines, such as
the Lukmanier (6289 ft.), a pass which has always been cast
into the shade by its neighbours, the San Bernardino or Vogel-
berg (6769 ft.) — the entire route over both these passes has the
great advantage of being (at least since 1500) within Swiss
territory — as well as the Spliigen (6946 ft.), of which the S.
slope was Swiss (as forming officially part of the Valtelline) from
1512 to 1797.

10. The Range of the Todi. — Just as the Bernese Alps and
the western half of the Lepontine Alps rise opposite each other
on either side of the upper Rhone valley, so do the eastern half
of the Lepontines and the Range of the Todi, the Vorder Rhine
valley serving as the limit between them. Our district thus
extends from the Oberalp Pass, on the S., to the Klausen Pass
(6404 ft.), on the N. It forms rather a long-drawn-out chain,

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 327

though not very wide, save a little to the N.W. of its highest
summit, where the considerable snow-fields of the Hiifi and
Clariden glaciers close respectively, the Maderanerthal in Uri,
and at the W. end of the group, and the Sandthal in Glarus.
The main ridge of the group is the boundary between the Grisons
and Glarus, while theTamina and Weisstannen glens, at the N.E.
end of the district, are in the Canton of St. Gall. On a small
scale, our range resembles the Bernese Alps, in being wholly
Swiss, though divided among several Cantons, here four in
number, there seven. Like the Bernese Oberland, our range
forms one of the great outliers of the Alps, while its culminating
summit, the Todi (11,887 ft.), is the most northerly important
peak in Switzerland. It thus looks naturally towards the north,
on which slope all its principal glaciers (generally called ' Firn '
or ' neve ' on the Swiss Government map) flow down. The
Todi is the highest snowy summit which is visible from Zurich,
so that one seems to be getting here into a new part of Switzer-
land. Very fitly, therefore, does the river that passes through
Ziirich, the Limmat, take its source in the snows of the Todi,
though there it bears the name of Linth. Notwithstanding these
northern inclinations, our range was first explored from the
Grisons side, though these explorations were practically the
work of a single man, the Benedictine monk, Placidus a Spescha
(1752-1833), who plays so conspicuous a part in the Alpine
history of this group and of the eastern half of the Lepontines.
Forty years later, Georg Hoffmann (1808 -1858), of Basel,
devoted himself to the peaks of the Maderanerthal. The first
Ziirich man who undertook the exploration of this group was
Johannes Hegetschweiler (i 789-1 839), who tried the Todi from
the Glarus side as early as 1820 and 1822. As is well known,
it was first successfully climbed in 1824 by two Grisons chamois
hunters sent out by Father Placidus, the ascent of the upper
snows being made on the Glarus side, though they had been
reached by the Porta da Spescha from the Grisons. In 1837
the most prominent point of the Todi on the N. side, the Glarner
Todi (11,815 ft-)> ^^s nearly attained by some Glarus peasants,
though the actually highest point was not touched till it was

328 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

visited in 1853 by Herren G. Studer (of Berne), J. J. Siegfried and
M. Ulrich (both of Zurich). Oddly enough, the cuhninating
point of the Todi that lies back, when looked at from the N.E.,
was not climbed direct by the Glarus side till 1861. Soon after,
the district became the scene in 1863 of the first activities in the
way of climbing of the infant Swiss Alpine Club, the ' Section
Todi ' being one of the most energetic among the earUest sections
of the club. Nowadays the Todi range is the favourite resort
(especially on Saturdays and Sundays) of young Zurich climbers,
very few expeditions being made from the Orisons side. To
English mountaineers the best-known bit of the region is the
Maderanerthal, where a comfortable Alpine inn, built at a con-
siderable height, serves as a good starting-point. This beautiful
glen is inhabited in summer only, apart from the small hamlets
of Bristen and of Oolzeren, both near its entrance. Its name is
said to be derived from a sixteenth century Italian miner, one
Madrano, who worked iron mines in the hollow between the
Grosse and the Kleine Windgalle. This nearly uninhabited
glen is balanced by another, the Calfeisen valley, at the N.E.
extremity of the range, now visited only in summer (but a
single house is permanently inhabited) for the sake of its
pastures, particularly those of Sardona at its head : it was
occupied in the first half of the fourteenth century by another
of those enterprising Oerman-speaking colonies from the Vallais.
The Calfeisen colonists are first mentioned in 1346, but the date
of their immigration is not known, even approximately. This
colony still flourished as late as 1518, but was then no doubt
gradually absorbed by their Romonsch neighbours, though
various Teutonic place-names still survive as proofs of its former
existence. It is certainly odd to find an Italian miner at one end
of our range and a set of German-speaking Vallaisans at the other.
The Calfeisen valley belonged to the powerful and wealthy
Benedictine monastery of Pfafers (720-1838), for our glen is
simply the uppermost bit of the Tamina valley, which lower
down forms the famous Gorge of Pfafers. Another fine gorge
in the region is the amazing Limmerntobel, cut deep at the
foot of the precipices of the Selbsanft, and joining (close to the

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 329

Pantenbriicke, above the Baths of Stachelberg) the fine, though
less surprising, cleft in which the Linth flows. Mention must
be made of the great landslip of 1881 above Elm, on the N. side
of the range, when a portion of the slate quarries gave way, and
killed one hundred and fifteen persons, besides inflicting great
material damage. Not far from these quarries, and conspicuous
from Elm, is the singular hole pierced by nature right through
the main range, and called ' Martinsloch.' This most curious
natural phenomenon is easily reached. It is 72 ft. high on the
Glarus side, and 49 ft. on the Orisons side, with a breadth of
46 ft., and the sun shines through it on several days in the
year. But, in the writer's opinion, the pearl of the range is the
hamlet of Brigels, nestling on its splendid shelf of pasture, and
raised high above the bed of the Vorder Rhine and Ilanz, while
surrounded by glorious forests, backed by the fantastic crags
of the Kavestrau rock needles, and commanding an almost
unlimited panorama towards the peaks that rise round the
sources of the main branch of the Rhine.

1 1. The Alps of North-East Switzerland. — As a general rule,
it is best, when describing the principal groups of the Alps,
and without attempting to make any very minute divisions, to
include the foot-hills in the loftier mountain mass of which
they form the outliers. But in two cases at least it seems
desirable to make an exception to this rule, and to set up
separate sections for the description of these relatively low
mountain ridges — viz. the cases of the Alps of North-East
Switzerland, and of those of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg, and
Salzburg (see Group 15 below). Our reason is that in both
cases, amid many minor summits and smiling pastoral valleys,
there rise summits which still bear perpetual snow, and which
form islets, as it were, that have no direct connection with
loftier snow-bearing ranges.

As regards the Alps of North-East Switzerland the best limit
seems to be that formed by the Klausen Pass (6404 ft.), which
leads from Altdorf to Glarus, placing all the mountains N. of
that limit in our group, while those to its S. have been noticed

330 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

above under the head of the 'Range of the Todi.' In our
group we may distinguish perhaps four minor groups. Two of
these may be dismissed briefly, as they lack perpetual snow.
One is formed by the two sharp rocky cones of the Mythen
(6240 ft.), that are so conspicuous from the Lake of Lucerne,
towering grandly above Schwyz, and its port of Brunnen. If a
path had not been blasted out of the rock to the summit of the
higher of the two, the ascent would be difficult, and it would
have been impossible either (as is the case) to build a little inn
up there, or for its tenant to have spent some thirty summers in
it. The other minor group is that of the Kurfiirsten (7576 ft.),
or ' Seven Electors ' (that is, to the crown of the Holy Roman
Empire), which rise like sentinels in fine precipices to the N. of
the Lake of Walenstadt, and form the boundary ridge between that
lake and the upper Thur valley, or the ' Toggenburg.' This ridge
sinks on the W. to the Speer (641 1 ft.), while on the E. it rises
a little to the slightly higher summits of the Faulfirst (7825 ft.)
and the Alvier (7695 ft.), which crown the spur separating the
Seez glen from the main Rhine valley. Of these seven summits
of the Kurfiirsten the two highest points, the Hinterruck and
the Kasernruck, are the most singular, because, though very
steep on the S. side (in mist it is nearly impossible to find the
way without minute local knowledge), on the N.E. slope,
towards the Toggenburg, they form gently incUned pastures of
the easiest kind. Thus once upon a time the writer, having
groped in a mist for many hours at the S. foot of this range,
succeeded at last in gaining its crest, and was then much startled
by meeting cows tranquilly wandering about, instead of the fresh
precipices which he had expected to encounter.

More interesting to mountaineers are the two other minor
groups, those of Gldrnisck (9580 ft.) and of the Santis. Both
rejoice not merely in fairly extensive snow-fields (no true glaciers),
but in remarkably imposing rock precipices, which at first
sight promise a hard scramble, though they are easily turned.
The grand spur of the Vorder Glamisch (7648 ft.), that over-
shadows the little town of Glarus, hides the loftier summits of
the chain, which he some way back. Still farther to the S.W.

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 331

is a most desolate tract of country, composed largely of riven
limestone plateaux, pierced with many loathsome holes ready to
engulf unwary travellers, and culminating in the Boser Faulen
(9200 ft.), and the Silberstock or Ortstock (8824 ft.). This
barren region, that stretches towards the head of the Muota
valley, has a most repulsive appearance from afar off, and would
probably not improve on nearer acquaintance. Glarnisch itself
is easily reached by way of the surprisingly large snow-field
that fills the hollow enclosed by its two higher summits. The
panorama should be very fine, but the writer has always had
hard luck on this peak, once reaching it in mist, then seeing
nothing and hearing only the railway whistle at Glarus far below,
and on several other occasions being prevented from even reach-
ing the Club hut, since, as soon as he approached the region, bad
weather set in.

The Sdntis (8216 ft.), rightly called the Hohe Santis, though
lower than Glarnisch, is a far more extraordinary range. Though
crowned by a meteorological Observatory and a fair mountain
Hotel, neither can be reached save after mounting one of two
by no means tiny snow-fields and a rock staircase. That is the
easy route up, but there are others which are more painful. If,
as did the writer in 1905, one drives from the Toggenburg to
Appenzell over the rolling downs to the N.W. of the Santis, that
range stands up most grandly, with its gaunt pale limestone
precipices relieved against the blue sky, and one can hardly
believe this imposing chain is really 600 ft. lower than the well-
known Faulhorn, behind Grindelwald. The unexpected grandeur
of the Santis is in part due to its remarkably isolated position,
just on the rim of the higher Alps. The writer once enjoyed
an amazing sunset from its summit, the clouds being blood-red,
and that colour being reflected on the earth, as far as the flame-
tinted Lake of Constance, across the hills that gradually sink in
height somewhat like the waves of a great green sea. As on the
Besimauda, in the Maritime Alps, years before, he realised how
the Alps break down into the plains, the waves becoming smaller
and smaller as they gain more tranquil regions. Another char-
acteristic of the Santis range is the number of Alpine lakes.

332 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

hidden away in the deep narrow glens that seam its N.E. flank.
The waters of these tarns make all the greater effect by the con-
trast they afford to the pale grey cliffs and stony slopes that hem
them in. In thinking of the Santis one must mention by the
way that quaint little seventeenth century chapel of Wildkirchli
(the ' wild chapel '), hidden away in its shadowy cave, that has
been hollowed out by Nature in the cliffs of the N.E. extremity
of the Santis range. Always striking and picturesque, even when
viewed from below, it gains much local colour on the first Sunday
in July, when the Feast of the Guardian Angels (the chapel is
dedicated to St. Michael) is locally kept, and the whole mountain-
side resounds with the cries of the Appenzellers, who, when
jodelling, bark like dogs. One feels that Appenzell and the
Santis still keep those traits which distinguish this region so
delightfully from tourist-overrun districts away to the S.W.
The writer has visited Appenzell several times, and came away
on each occasion with a sentiment of deeper thankfulness that
primitive simpUcity still reigns in the land that, above all, is the
centre of primitive democracy, and whose citizens attend the
great annual Lands gemeinde or Assembly with sword girded on
thigh, like their forefathers. The local costumes, too, are still
kept up, even to some extent on week-days, though the canary-
coloured shorts and the scarlet waistcoats of the herdsmen are
not a patch on the marvels of the festival attire of the women,
on such a great occasion as the striking procession on the Feast
of the Assumption (August 15) through the streets of the little
town-village of Appenzell.

12. Bernina Alps. — We must now return to the Spliigen Pass,
which we left in Section 9, and study the Alpine chain that
stretches thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass which marks the
end of the Central Alps. Here two topographical difficulties
confront us at once, and we have to make a choice between
them. The range running eastwards from the Spliigen forms part
of the Albula group, but when it attains a point near the Maloja
Pass (5935 ft.), the main watershed bends S.E. and continues
along the crest of the Bernina Alps. In this way the greater

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 333

portion of the Albula group is not on the main divide, while it
is continued by the Silvretta group, so that it is practically most
convenient to consider these two mountain masses after the
Bernina Alps. On the other hand, the W. wing of the Bernina Alps
(we mean the range S.W. of the Muretto Pass) is a mere spur, for
the great watershed does not touch the Bernina Alps till a little
to the E. of the Muretto Pass. Thus whichever alternative we
select, it is inevitable that a portion of our range will not be on
the main watershed of the Alps. In this perplexity let us give
the preference to the Bernina Alps, which are much loftier than
the Albula group, and of which a much more extensive section
is really on the Alpine watershed.

A glance at the map shows that when the main range resumes
its E. direction, after a short S. diversion from the Spliigen, it is
faced for a long distance by another, which runs parallel to it,
the general direction being N.E. Between them lie two great
mountain valleys or trenches which at some distant period
probably formed but one — the Val BregagUa (watered by the
Maira) and the Engadine, or upper (Swiss) portion of the valley
of the Inn. The more northerly of these two ranges is that of
the Albula, continued by that of the Silvretta, while the more
southerly forms the Bernina Alps, to the S. of which is another
great valley, the Valtelline, also roughly parallel to those just
mentioned.

Now in our sense the Bernina Alps stretch from near the head
of the Lake of Como right away to the Reschen Scheideck
(4902 ft.) and the Stelvio Passes (9055 ft.). Like the Bernese
Oberland, they form a central mass, flanked by two wings, the
Muretto (8389 ft.) and the Bernina Passes (7645 ft.) forming the
limits that mark off the central mass from its outliers. This
central mass is the Bernina group /ar excellence, its name being
taken from the pass, and not vice versa as is sometimes imagined.
It is the lofty snowy range so well known, at least by sight, to all
visitors to the Upper Engadine, though its peaks are not as much
visited as is usual in the case of a great mountain group. On
the N. slope two great glaciers flow down majestically, the more
westerly, that of Roseg (swollen by its neighbour, the Tschierva)

334 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

ending in the Roseg glen that terminates close to Pontresina.
The more easterly glen is all but entirely occupied by the
Morteratsch glacier, and ends some way above Pontresina. Now
very nearly at the head of these two great glaciers, yet a little on
the Swiss side of the watershed, rises Piz Bernina (13,304 ft.),
the monarch of the group, and the loftiest summit in the Alps
E. of a line drawn from the Simplon Pass up the upper Rhone
valley and then over the Grimsel Pass — in short, E. of the
Pennines, on the main watershed, and of the central mass of
the Bernese Alps, on the more northerly line. Hence Piz
Bernina is remarkable, as it surpasses not merely every peak in
the Eastern Alps, but also all those in the Central Alps, save
in the case of the Bernese Oberland. But it is not very much
higher than its immediate neighbours, so that it does not make
so deep an impression on the mind of the spectator as might be
expected from its really great height. The peak, however, has
another, though less permanent, claim to notice. Its first ascent
was made as far back as 1850 by Herr J. Coaz (b. 1822), who
climbed, in the course of his journeys as one of the Federal map
surveyors, many other peaks in and around the Engadine, one
as early as 1845. He still survives, hale and hearty, the Nestor
of living climbers, though nearly fifty-eight years have elapsed
since he conquered Piz Bernina.

To the S. of the main mass is a considerable mountain district,
closed at its head by several great glaciers, those of Scerscen, of
Fellaria, and of Verona, the waters flowing from which descend
through various glens that unite to form the Val Malenco, down
which runs the track from the Muretto Pass to Sondrio, the capital
of the fertile Valtelline. This region between the Bernina main
range and the Valtelline is wholly Italian, but is more rarely
visited and explored than perhaps any district in the High Alps,
save perhaps that which extends S.E. of the Tour du Grand St.
Pierre in the Eastern Graians.

To the S.W. of the Muretto Pass the W. wing of the Bernina
Alps is about equally divided now between Switzerland and Italy,
though, when the Valtelline was held by the Grisons from 1 5 1 2
to 1797, it was, in a sense, wholly Swiss. Hence it bears the

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 335

double name of the ' Bregaglia district,' and of the ' Mountains
of Val Masino,' the chief glen on its S. slope. It is composed
of a fine series of granitic peaks, divided from each other by two
steep and narrow glaciers (those of Bondasca and Albigna), and
a much longer though much more level field of ice, known as the
Forno glacier, the stream from which descends direct to the
Maloja Pass. Several easy smugglers' passes cross this range,
while others have been forced of recent years, but the explora-
tion of the higher summits of the group did not begin till
as late as 1862, and has to a great extent been the work of
perhaps only half-a-dozen climbers. The loftiest summit on
the divide of the W. wing (though not, be it remembered, the
main divide of the Alps) is the Cima di Castello (11,155 ft.),
though much better known are the twin summits of the Piz
Cengalo (11,070 ft.) and of the Piz Badile (10,863 ft.), which
make such a grand show when seen from above St. Moritz across
the broad opening of the Maloja. The culminating point of the
entire region is, however, the Monte della Disgrazia (12,067 ft.),
which rises as a great spur on the Italian side, and therefore is
comparatively unknown, although in itself a magnificent peak.
All the four summits named were first conquered by English
climbers between 1862 and 1867.

Let us now turn our attention to the E. wing of the Bernina
Alps, that namely extending N.E. of the Bernina Pass, till it
touches the Tyrol at the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio
Passes. It is a wild and strange, though very interesting region,
especially from the historical point of view. It is made up in
part of the valley of Livigno, which sends its waters to the Lower
Engadine. Situated on the N. slope of the main watershed of the
Alps, the fate of this valley has always been linked with that of
the county of Bormio, of which the other half, W. of Bormio
itself, consists of the glens which give rise to the infant Adda.
Now, as the county of Bormio has for ages formed part of the
Valtelline, it follows that Livigno has had the same historical
destiny as that great valley, so that while it was Rsetian from
1512 to 1797, it became in 1859 part of Italy. Thus, with
certain districts in the Maritime Alps and the Val di Lei (simply

336 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

a pasture valley), it is the only fragment of present-day Italy
which lies N. of the Alpine watershed. To redress the balance,
as it were, another glen included in our region, that of Miinster,
is, at any rate in its upper reach, politically Swiss since 1762,
although it is on the S. slope of the main chain. Thus we have
the curious anomaly (noticed in Chapters vi. and vii. above)
that ItaUan-speaking Livigno is politically Italian, though the
Spol joins the Inn, while Ladin-speaking Miinster is Swiss,
though the Ram is an afifiuent of the Adige.

The best-known summit in the E. wing is undoubtedly the
Piz Languard (10,716 ft), the well-known belvedere of Pontre-
sina. It rises at the extreme S.W. extremity of our district, but
is surpassed in point of height by a number of other peaks, which
stand far away to the E. and S.E., and form, as it were, small,
semi-detached groups ; such are the Cima di Piazzi (11,283 ft-)>
the Cima Viola (11,103 ft.), and the Cima di Saoseo (10,752 ft.),
all situated a little to the S.W. of Bormio. More to the N. are
the Corno di Campo (10,844 ft-)' Piz Quatervals (10,348 ft.),
and Piz Murtarol (10,424 ft.), while beyond the Ofen Pass (7071
ft.) are Piz Plavna da daint (10,414 ft.), Piz Tavrii (10,394 ft.),
Piz Pisoc (10,427 ft.), Piz Lischanna (10,204 ft.), and Piz
Sesvenna (10,568 ft.): near the Stelvio are Piz Umbrail (9955
ft.), close to the historical pass (8242 ft.) of that name, the
secular rival of the Stelvio (9055 ft.) — they are traversed by two
of the three highest carriage roads in the Alps (they are separated,
in this point, by the Col du Galibier, 8721 ft., in the Dauphine
Alps) — and the Dreisprachenspitze (9328 ft.), the knoll, where
meet the Hmits of the German, Italian, and Ladin tongues, as
well as the actual political frontiers of Switzerland, Italy, and
Austria. Indeed the E. wing of the Bernina Alps offers a series
of fascinating puzzles to those who delight in unravelling com-
plicated problems, for its physical, political, and linguistic
characteristics overlap in a bewildering fashion. It requires
detailed local knowledge indeed to be able to trace (see Chap-
ter VII. above) the exact line of the main watershed of the Alps
between the Bernina and Reschen Scheideck Passes, while other
entanglements will be met with on the way. Perhaps this is

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 337

one reason why our region is little visited save in the case of the

peaks that overhang the Engadine (Upper or Lower), though it
boasts of many attractions, picturesque and historical, even
though they may not be absolutely of the first rank.

13. Albula Group. — Under this name (taken from that of its now
best-known pass, beneath which the railway tunnel connecting
the Engadine for the first time with the outer world by a quick
and easy route was opened in 1903) a lengthy range stretches
from the Spliigen to the Maloja, and the Fliiela Passes (7838 ft.),
that mark it off respectively from the Bernina Alps, and from
the Silvretta group. As noted in the preceding section, it
forms the main watershed of the Alps till near the Maloja, but
then becomes merely a lateral range that limits the Engadine
on the N.W.

Three deep-sunk valleys, divided from each other by four
mountain ridges, make up our region — the valleys being those
of Avers and Oberhalbstein, — both leading from the Hinter
Rhine valley to the Upper Engadine, the former by the For-
cellina Pass (8770 ft.) combined with the Forcella di Lunghino
(8645 ft.), and the latter by the Julier Pass (7504 ft.) — and the
Albula glen (a tributary of the Rhine), through which a carriage
road over, and a tunnel beneath, the Albula Pass (7595 ft.) give
access to Ponte in the Upper Engadine.

As a valley must by the nature of things be enclosed by two
ridges, the first and second of our four ridges surround that of
Avers. Of that singular glen we spoke in Chapter vi., for it
presents most remarkable political, linguistic, and historical
peculiarities, though its population only amounts to three
hundred and sixty-six souls. To us here it is most interesting,
because at its head is the hamlet of Juf, which enjoys the dis-
tinction of being the loftiest permanently inhabited village in the
Alps, as its twenty-four inhabitants live at a height of no less than
6998 ft. Just at the point where a gorge separates the two
halves of the Avers glen, a torrent rushes in from the Val di Lei,
a pasture valley descending from the most westerly of our four
ridges, so that this glen (politically Itahan, though situated on
y

338 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

the N. slope of the Alps) sends its waters to the Rhine ; the facts
that its lower reach forms a savage gorge, while an easy pass
connects it with Chiavenna, probably account for its curious
political position, though, like Livigno (mentioned in the last
section), it was Rcetian from 151 2 to 1797, and only became
Italian in 1859. It is an even longer glen than its neighbours
of Madris and Bregalga, so that, while the passes from the head
of each over to the Val Bregaglia are quite easy, the ascent on
the N. slope is much more gradual than the short though steep
descent on the S. slope. In our most westerly ridge the chief
summits are the Surettahorn (9945 ft.), just E. of the Spliigen,
the Piz Timun or d'Emet (10,502 ft.), the Pizzo Gallegione
(10,201 ft.), a little W. of which the ridge bends from a southerly
to an easterly direction, and the Pizzo della Duana (10,279 f*.),
to the N.E. of which the second of our four ridges unites with the
most westerly. In that second ridge the chief summits are the
Piz Platta (11,109 ft-) ^"d t^^ Averser Weissberg (9987 ft.) —
two superb belvederes, accessible with ease in a short time from
Cresta (6395 ft.), the chief village of the Avers glen — while
more to the N.E. are the twin black peaks of Piz Forbisch
(10,689 ft.) and Piz d'Arblatsch (10,512 ft.).

Not very far east of this point of junction and of the tracks
over the ancient historical pass of the Septimer (7582 ft.) rises
the Pizzo Lunghino (91 21 ft.), a summit of great topographical
importance, first because here the main watershed of the Alps
splits off to the S.E. over the Maloja to the Bernina Alps (so
that henceforth the Albula group is of merely secondary im-
portance), and next, because from it (as from the Wyttenwasser-
stock in the Lepontines) streams descend towards three seas, in
this case to the Hadriatic (the Maira joins the Po), the North
Sea (the stream from the Septimer Pass falls into the Rhine), and
the Black Sea (which is fed by the Inn through the Danube).

Our third ridge divides the Oberhalbstein glen (or the Julier
route) from the Albula glen, and is far loftier than its two
more westerly neighbours. First we have the very considerable
snow-covered Err group, though its culminating point is now
called the Piz del las Calderas (11,132 ft.), that of Piz d'Err being

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 339

but the second in height (11,093 ft.). More interesting, how-
ever, are three summits that rise to the N. of the Err group, the
Piz d'Aela (10,959 ft.), the Tinzenhorn (10,430 ft.), and the Piz
Michel (10,378 ft.). The two last named show from the health-
resort of Davos as boldly as the Piz Cengalo and the Piz
Badile do from above St. Moritz across the wide opening of
the Maloja, while all three are true Dolomites, though not in
the South Tyrol. As is well known, magnesian limestone is
found sporadically in the Alps, outside the South Tyrol. We
have noted several peaks of this nature in the low ranges S.W.
of Grenoble, in the Dauphine Alps, while there is the striking,
though isolated, Pizzo Columbe (8363 ft.) in the eastern Lepon-
tines, between the St. Gotthard and the Lukmanier Passes, as
well as the quaint group of the Spliigen Dolomites (just N. of the
village of that name, and also in the eastern Lepontines), which
attains a height of 9991 ft. in the Alperschellihorn. But the Piz
d'Aela and its two neighbours seem to be the most important
and loftiest group of this geological character outside the South
Tyrol. They are often specially named the ' Berglin Dolomites '
from the village at their N.E. foot, and now on the Albula
railway,

Our fourth ' ridge ' is rather a range, or, strictly speaking, two
ranges, separated by the Scaletta Pass (8593 ft.), by which Davos
and the Upper Engadine most easily communicate, for the Fliiela
Pass (7838 ft.), though traversed by a carriage road, leads from
Davos to the Lower Engadine, as it reaches the Inn valley
below the Punt' Ota, the ancient limit between the two divi-
sions. Each of our two ranges serves as the centre from which
radiate a number of glens of some length, mainly on the
Davos or N. slope, though the Sulsanna glen, on the Engadine
slope, is scarcely, if at all, inferior to them in this respect.
Each group culminates in twin summits of nearly equal height,
the more westerly being Piz Kesch (11,228 ft.), the loftiest
summit in the entire Albula group, and the more easterly Piz
Vadret (10,584 ft.). In both cases the actual highest peak
was first conquered by an English party, in 1864 and 1867
respectively.

id

340 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

As will be seen, the Albula group is much inferior in height
to the central mass of the Bernina Alps, while Piz Kesch is
even surpassed by the Cima di Piazzi (11,283 ft.), the monarch
of the E. wing; the Cima di Castello (11,155 ft.), the highest
point on the main ridge of the W. wing, is slightly inferior
to Piz Kesch, though the true culminating summit of the W.
wing, the Monte della Disgrazia (12,067 ft.), is indeed con-
siderably loftier. The peaks of the Albula group are thus
rather dwarfed by their mightier neighbours across the upper
Inn valley. But, as generally happens, the finest panoramas
are obtained from secondary ranges, so that the Albula group
stands very high in this respect. The writer can speak en-
thusiastically of the views from Piz Platta, the Averser Weissberg,
and Piz dellas Calderas. That from Piz Vadret was rather dis-
appointing, as it stands at a wrong angle for the proper
appreciation of the central Bernina Alps, while to the N.W. the
snowless summits around Davos present a monotonous aspect
in keeping with the melancholy associations of that sad spot.
Envious mists hid everything when the writer visited Piz Kesch.
In short, the Albula group, like the Lepontines, offers many
superb belvederes, though from a mountaineer's point of view
they are inferior (saving Piz d'Aela with its two comrades,
and the three are all strangers, so to speak, in the region) to
most of the Bernina Alps.

14. Silvretta and RMtikon Group. — This group, too, is a]
lengthy ridge, with the usual pair of spurs or outliers. From ;
the Fliiela Pass its watershed runs N.E., forming the Silvrettal
(a name spelt 'Selvreta' in the seventeenth and eighteenth!
centuries) group (the reader may or may not adopt at his choice!
the explanation of this term as referring to ' forests ' or to ' silverj
snows') that rises in its four chief peaks, Piz Linard (11,201 ft.)J
the Verstanklahorn (10,831 ft.). Gross Piz Buin (10,880 ft.)i
and the Fluchthorn (11,165 ft')» before it sinks to the com-*
paratively low ridge enclosing the Swiss side glen of Samnaun.
Beyond that glen the Vesulspitze (10,145 ft-) ^-^^ the Hexenkopf
(9968 ft.) are the highest peaks, as the range gradually falls to^

ih.l

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS 341

wards the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), its N.E. limit
as well as that of the Central Alps. The Silvretta range thus
runs between the Swiss Lower Engadine on the S., and the
Swiss Prattigau or Landquart valley on the W., while on the
N. it is limited by the Tyrolese valley of Paznaun, and by the
Vorarlberg valley (also Austrian) of Montafon. It is practically
convenient to annex to our range the mainly Tyrolese
district of Ferwall, that Ues N. of the Paznaun valley, and S. of
the Arlberg Pass (5912 ft.), its loftiest points being the twin
summits of the Kuchenspitze (10,401 ft.) and the Kiichelspitze
(10,315 ft.), though its finest peak is the Patteriol (10,037 ^t.),
while its principal belvedere is the Hoher Riffler (10,368 ft.).
The frontiers of Switzerland, the Tyrol, and the Vorarlberg
meet at the summit called for that reason the Dreilanderspitz
(iO)539 ft:.). But this politically important summit stands a
little to the N.E. of the true orographical centre of the region,
the Signalhorn (10,539 ft.), which rises a little to the N.W. of
the mountains named Gross Piz Buin (10,880 ft.) and Klein Piz
Buin (10,696 ft.). Hence the Silvretta range either bends N.W.
or, if it is preferred to say so, throws out a great spur in that
direction. On it rise the Silvrettahorn (10,657 ft.) and the
rock needles of the Gross Litzner (10,207 ft.) and of the Gross
Seehorn (10,247 ft.), before it sinks to the well-marked de-
pression of the Schlappinerjoch (7218 ft.). This pass marks
the limit between the Silvretta group and its continuation in
the same N.W. direction, the Rhatikon range ('mons Rsetico'),
that rises in the Madrishorn (9285 ft.), the Sulzfluh (9252 ft.),
the Drusenfluh (9282 ft.), and the Scesaplana (9741 ft.), before
ending in the Falknis (8419 ft.), that towers over Ragatz and
Sargans. From the Signalhorn the N.W. bit of the Silvretta
range and the whole of that of the Rhatikon runs between the
Swiss Prattigau valley, on the S.W., and the Vorarlberg (that is,
Austrian) glens of Montafon and the Wallgau, on the N.E.

It will thus be seen that the whole of our group smacks of the
Tyrol and the Vorarlberg, thus preparing us for the entirely
Austrian character of the Eastern Alps. It is in part now
politically Swiss, so far as regards its S. slope. But that slope

342 THE ALPS IN NATURE AND HISTORY

was once also Austrian, if not wholly Tyrolese, for the claims of
the Habsburgers over the Prattigau were not bought up by the
Raetian Leagues till 1649-165 2, while the Lower Engadine was
Tyrolese till 1652. As we pointed out in Chapter vii., the Tyrol
itself came to the Habsburgers in 1363, while of the region later
called by the general name of the ' Vorarlberg ' (that is, ' before
the Arlberg Pass,' when looked at from the point of view of
any one crossing the pass to Innsbruck), the town of Feldkirch
was bought by the Habsburgers in 1375, as in 1394 was that
of Bludenz, with the valley of Montafon. The long and close
connection between the Lower Engadine and the Tyrolese glen
of Paznaun is illustrated by the curious fact (pointed out in
Chapter ix.) that till 1383 Galtiir, the highest hamlet in the
Paznaun valley, was included in the parish of Ardez (which
still owns the Gross Fermunt pastures at the head of the
Vorarlberg glen of Montafon) in the Lower Engadine, being
then allowed to have a priest of its own to serve the church
built in 1359 owing to the difficulties of communication in
winter over the Futschol Pass (9098 ft.). Even to this day the
Fenga or Fimber pastures, on the Tyrolese side of the Fimber
Pass (8570 ft.), belong to the Swiss villages of Remiis and Sent,
in the Lower Engadine, so that, oddly, the Heidelberg Club
hut, the property of the German and Austrian Alpine Club, is
actually situated on politically Swiss, though topographically
Tyrolese, that is, Austrian, territory.

The Rhatikon chain generally falls in fine precipices on the
Swiss side, but the N. slope offers easy access to the crest — in
fact, many of its highest summits are of what has been called the
' writing-desk ' shape. Hence they were early visited. In 1742
Nicholas Sererhard, the pastor of Seewis, gives us an account of
his ascent (not the first) of the Scesaplana, though he did not
climb it straight from the Swiss side, gaining the glacier on the
other slope, by which the now usual way from the Liinersee lake
and its ' Club hut' (really a nice little mountain inn) was joined.
The ' Club hut ' is named the ' Douglass [sic] Club hut ' in memory
of a young Scotchman (John Sholto Douglas) who owned a large
factory near Bludenz, and died in 1875, at t^^e age of only thirty-

THE DIVISIONS AND GROUPS

343

six, by a sad accident on a hunting expedition. He had done
some good exploration among the hills around Bludenz, his
finest climb having probably been the ascent of the boldest
summit of the Rhatikon, the Zimbaspitze (8678 ft.) in 1863,
which he was the first traveller to visit, though it had previously
been attained more than once by peasants of the region. The
monarch of the entire group, Piz Linard (11,201 ft.), was
certainly scaled in 1835 by Professor Oswald Heer, of scientific
fame. But old Ulrich Campell, the sixteenth century historian
of Rcetia, has a wonderful tale of one Conrad (whence the peak
was called ' Piz Chiinard ' or ' Conrad ') who, at some date
before 1573, succeeded in vanquishing this terrible mountain,
and planted a golden cross on its topmost point. Many
attempts were made later to reach and carry off this cross, but
all were fruitless. This legendary Conrad and his peak
reminds us of Bonifacio Rotario and the RochemeloH; near the
Mont Cenis, and especially of the eleventh century attempts to
carry away the treasure, deposited on its summit by the
mysterious King Romulus, whose name was applied to the peak as
late as 1456, and is perhaps to be detected in the present title
of the mountain. The Fluchthorn, the second peak of our
group, was first climbed in 1861, and long enjoyed a terrific,
though wholly unmerited, reputation. But it was not till the
then youthful Swiss Alpine Club set to work in earnest that the
serious exploration of the range commenced in 1865, the next
years seeing the defeat of the two little local Matterhorns, the
Verstanklahorn and the Gross Litzner. The most extensive
glaciers of the region, such as those of Fermunt, Jamthal, and
Larain (note that in each case the special name * Ferner,'
applied to glaciers in the Eastern Alps, is applied to these, a
sign that we are not far from, some would say already within,
that division of the Alpine chain), are on the Austrian slope.
But th